PUPIL LIFE 



L. P. LEAVELL 




Class JH-. 

Book 'l.,\-^ 

Copyright^ 



CSEflRIGRT DEPOSm 



PUPIL LIFE 

WITH HINTS TO TEACHERS 



By L. P. LEAVELL 

Associate Professor of Sunday School Pedagogy in the 

Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, 

Louisville, Kentucky 




SUNDAY SCHOOL BOARD 

SOUTHERN BAPTIST CONVENTION 

NASHVILLE, TENNESSEE 



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COPYRIGHT 1919 BY 
SUNDAY SCHOOL BOARD 
SOUTHERN BAPTIST CONVENTION 
Nashville, Tennessee 



AUG -9 1919 

©CU530476 



PREFACE. 

In preparing these studies the needs of the average 
Sunday school teacher have been kept constantly in mind. 

As much as possible, the abstractions of the general 
run of text books on psychology have been avoided, yet 
the aim has been to give enough of the science for prac- 
tical use and for building up in the teacher an appreciation 
of expert teaching. 

Effort has been made to make the facts of psychology 
interesting by using illustrations to enliven them and by 
making the application to the Sunday school teacher's 
work. This application frequently takes up half the dis- 
cussion of a point ; it is not made in a general way, but to 
the work of a specific department or class. Hence it is 
hoped that teachers of every grade will find suggestions 
that will help them in applying these principles. 

A rather wide range of text books has been reviewed 
as these studies have been worked out, and credit is given 
all along for material which is quoted. No credit is given 
for the use of terms and phrases which have become 
common to all books upon the subject. 

Acknowledgment is hereby made to Dr. C. S. Gardner, 
of the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, Louisville, 
Ky., and to Professor J. M. Price, of the Southwestern Bap- 
tist Theological Seminary, Fort Worth, Texas, for helpful 
suggestions. 

Students who have completed the New Convention Nor- 
mal Manual will find that these studies link up with its second 
division — The Pupil — and lead out from the suggestions there 
given. L. P. LEAVELL. 



DIRECTIONS FOR THE STUDY OF THIS BOOK. 

Lesson Assignment. Ordinarily each chapter will con- 
stitute a lesson. Yet, if desired, they may be broken into 
two lessons. At the close of each chapter there are given 
questions to aid the pupil in preparing the lesson. Also 
they may be used as a basis of recitation. In case a full- 
er treatment than is given is desired, the 'Topics for Fur- 
ther Discussion" and the references may be assigned for 
study. 

Examination. The teacher of the class will conduct a 
written examination upon the book. The General Ques- 
tions for Review and Examination at the close of Chapter 
XII will be used as a basis for the test. At least sixteen 
of these must be selected and submitted to the students, 
taking care to have at least one from each of the chapters. 

In case the class wishes to take a test at the half-way 
point, these questions may be used for such a test; the 
teacher will select and submit not less than ten, taking 
care to have at least one from each of the chapters studied. 

These test questions should be submitted to the class to 
be answered in writing at one sitting and without help. 
Members of the class may be asked to sign the customary 
pledge : "I have neither given nor received aid on this ex- 
amination. " 



CONTENTS. 

Chapter. Page. 

I. Introductory 7 

II. How We Learn 19 

III. Curiosity 29 

IV. Attention 37 

V. Apperception --. 47 

VI. Memory . ■ 59 

VII. Imagination 71 

VIII. Thought 83 

IX. The Feelings 97 

X. The Will 109 

XI. Habit and Character 121 

XII. Review and Test 133 



CHAPTER I. 
Introductory. 

I. Psychology. 

Sunday school workers have many interesting things 
to study, but in no line of their work do they find more 
of real, vivid interest than in the study of the pupil's mind 
and life. It is always interesting to discover the "why" of 
the preferences and behavior of boys and girls. To know 
"why" helps the teacher in approaching them and dealing 
with them. 

In giving attention to such questions, we are studying 
psychology at first hand. Either consciously or uncon- 
sciously all of us are constantly using vast amounts of 
psychological material. Every day we talk about the char- 
acteristics and habits of people, we exert ourselves to win 
the attention of others and to interest and convince them, 
we try to fix things in our memory, and we weigh evidence, 
deliberate and decide about various matters. All of this 
involves processes of psychology. 

Furthermore, all who read and appreciate the experi- 
ences of life which are pictured in good literature are un- 
consciously studying psychology, since literature is but 
the expression of human thoughts and feelings. Psychol- 
ogy is, therefore, not a study of mysteries, but rather a 
study of real life as we see it and deal with it every day. 

i. Psychology Defined. The word "psychology" is de- 
rived from the Greek wiords "psyche," meaning mind or 
soul, and "logos," meaning zvords about. Therefore "psy- 
chology" is "words about, or a study of, the soul." Soul 
in this connection means not the spiritual nature, only, 
but rather the mind, including the sum of all our powers 
that are not purely physical. 

Another definition fuller than the above is : "Psychology 



JPIL LIFE 

is the scientific study of the nature and course of expe- 
rience ; experience includes all our mental states and proc- 
esses such as thoughts, memories, emotions, perceptions, 
and sensations." The words "course of experience" and 
"processes" indicate that psychology deals with a con- 
tinuous operation ; a something that is constantly chang- 
ing, but which can be observed ; that psychology does 
not deal with a mere thing. "Psychology deals with the 
now — now 5 — now of conscious life." 

2. The Mind a Unit. In this book we are to study a 
number of mental processes, such as memory, imagination, 
curiosity, and the feelings, giving a chapter to each. For 
our convenience we study these processes separately, but 
we know that the mind is not divided up into separate sec- 
tions or divisions like the department of a factory, each 
of which has charge of a separate and distinct phase of 
work. On the other hand, the mind is a unit, a wonder- 
ful whole, and acts as a whole. For example, memory 
involves, along with other mental powers, the use of at- 
tention, imagination, and often the feelings ; again, the in- 
tellect, feelings, and will often work together in the same 
instant, thus involving in one act the whole round of 
mental processes. Therefore these processes may be stud- 
ied separately for convenience only, but must not be con- 
sidered as doing their work apart from others. 

Psychologists agree that we cannot obtain a purely 
mental state for study, since every mental state involves 
elements of attention, discrimination, and assimilation. 

3. What Constitutes Mind? A stream of mental ac- 
tivity; we can know it only as we watch it in its work. 
All the varied and complex operations of the human mind 
may be summed up under three great capacities — knowing, 
feeling, and willing. These three capacities are not three 
different parts of the mind, like the head, the hands, and 
the feet are of the body, but they are three forms of ac- 
tivity of the same mind. 

(1) Knowing, or intellect, includes the discriminating 
powers of the mind ; such as memory, imagination, deliber- 
ation, judgment, and reasoning. 



INTRODUCTORY g 

(2) Feeling, or emotion, includes the states of mind 
giving pleasure or pain; such as love, hatred, anger, jeal- 
ousy, joy or grief. 

(3) Will, or volition, includes the mental states lead- 
ing to action ; such as impulse, decision, and doing. 

These three great capacities are intimately connected 
in our experiences. For example, a wicked man hears a 
Gospel sermon (knowing) ; he realizes his lost condition 
(feeling) ; he trusts Christ as his Saviour (his will acts). 
It is practically impossible to analyze this experience close- 
ly and to state just where one of these states of mind 
ends and the other begins. 

The Sunday school teacher must take account of the 
whole process and its outcome. Knowing should lead to 
feeling, and feeling should move the will. The teacher's 
aim should be to take each step in this process and to suc- 
ceed in moving the pupil's will for right against wrong. 

II. Why Study Psychology? 

1. The Teacher Must Know Mental Processes, 

The Sunday school teacher must deal, first of all, with 
the pupil's mind; hence he should know about the work- 
ings of the mind, or mental processes. 

Psychology is a scientific study of the mind's laws. 
The mind has its laws of knowing, feeling and willing, and 
these laws are fixed. All good teaching must follow these 
laws. The skilled teacher must, of course, know these laws 
in order to follow them wisely. 

The chief aim in the Sunday school is to develop the 
spiritual life of the pupils ; but the spiritual life can be 
reached and influenced only by way of the mind. The 
fixed order is : the intellect, the feeling, and the will. Some 
Sunday school workers have assumed that the aim of the 
Sunday school is to influence and convert rather than to 
teach. But the Sunday school worker of today knows that 
the two ideas are not to be put over against each other as 
if they were opposed to each other, but that they go to- 
gether as parts of a whole. We influence our pupils and 



io PUPIL LIFE 

lead them to conversion by means of our teaching as a 
basis for the appeal. As a rule, the pupils who know the 
Gospel story best respond to the appeal most readily. 
Hence there must be instruction in order that there may 
be conversion. 

2. Guides in Selecting Truth for Teaching. 

The Sunday school teacher must study the laws that 
govern the mind because a knowledge of the mind's laws 
is necessary in selecting the truths to be taught. 

The teacher cannot teach all the truths contained in a 
given Bible lesson. The Sunday school teaching periods 
are too short. A selection must be made, and that selec- 
tion should be determined by the pupil's need and mental 
ability. The truths selected for teaching should be adapted 
to the pupil's life and should fit into his spiritual needs ; 
further, they should be within the mental range of the 
pupil and not above his head or too simple for him. 

The teaching material must be adapted to the mind 
which is to receive it. Hence according to the pupil's men- 
tal ability the teacher should select the truths to be taught. 
Only truths selected in this way can be assimilated mental- 
ly and spiritually. As in the physical realm, only assimi- 
ated foods build up the body, so in the mental realm only 
truths which are within the comprehension of the pupil are 
taken in by the mind, assimilated and result in building 
up the mind. 

Just as a physician must study the human body and 
know its parts and the laws governing its functions so as 
to be able to properly select medicine for it, so the teach- 
er must know the pupil s mind and the laws which govern 
its processes so as to be able to select suitable teaching 
material for it. 

To illustrate how a knowledge of the pupil's mind de- 
termines the selection of teaching material, consider mem- 
ory and how it differs in the three general periods of life 
— childhood, youth, and adulthood. 

(i) Memory in Childhood. In childhood, including the 
Beginner's and Primary departments of the Sunday school, 
pupils do not memorize by effort of the will; they simply 



INTRODUCTORY n 

remember. During the Primary period the ability to mem- 
orize begins, to be sure, but it is simply the beginning. 
There is little or no memorizing in the generally accepted 
sense. Children learn rather by absorption as a result of 
the teacher's frequent repetition of a truth. Memorizing re- 
quires concentration ; children can concentrate but little. 

What teaching material, then, is best for children? 
That material which is made up of the simplest Bible sto- 
ries, together with appropriate, short, verses. The stories 
must be told in the simplest way and the brief memory 
verses must be gone over again and again. The burden 
of work rests upon the teacher because the pupil is too 
young to put forth voluntary effort in memorizing. To 
force this pupil to memorize what is beyond his compre- 
hension is to do his mind an injury which can hardly be 
remedied. 

(2) Memory in Youth. In this period, including the 
Juniors and Intermediates, pupils memorize both by drill 
and by association of ideas. They can render voluntary at- 
tention and delight to do so. It is the getting time of life, 
and they love to get facts. 

What, then, is the proper teaching material for these 
pupils ? It is Bible material which they can learn for them- 
selves ; memory work to be drilled upon ; Bible stories to 
be learned as a background for memorizing the sayings of 
the characters and the leading facts about them. 

(3) Memory in Adulthood. In this period, including the 
seniors and adults, pupils memorize chiefly by association 
of ideas, with less emphasis upon drill work. They are in- 
terested in the why and how of things, in causes and effects, 
in comparative values, and in teachings which have a prac- 
tical bearing upon life's problems. 

What teaching material, then, is best for developing the 
memory of adults? Such material as satisfies their desire 
for related truths and contains an appeal to reason and 
judgment; such material as leads them to see the associa- 
tion of ideas which is possible between certain characters 
or fundamental truths. They will remember teaching ma- 
terial of this kind. 



12 PUPIL LIFE 

Summing up the suggestions given under the three 
heads above mentioned, the fundamental principle under- 
lying all of them is that of adaptation. "Instruction should 
conform to the order of mind growth." This means adapta- 
tion. Upon this law may be based the argument for the 
necessity of changing the kind of material from period to 
period, as the pupil's mind develops. The teaching material 
should match the order of mind growth. The pupil's mental 
appetite, like the bodily appetite, craves different food in 
different periods of growth. 

Hence the teacher's task is to know the pupil's mental 
appetites and to select teaching material which will satisfy 
these appetites. When the pupil's mental appetite changes, 
then both the material and the method of teaching must 
change, or the teaching will accomplish nothing. 

Real teaching is possible only on the basis of adaptation 
of the teaching material to the pupil's mind. Hence the 
necessity for graded lesson material, which is selected upon 
this principle ; the material is adapted to the pupil's mental 
ability and spiritual needs. The Bible can no more be 
taught successfully on the "family class plan" than can 
arithmetic. All Bible truths are valuable and necessary, but 
not all are necessary for the same person at the same time. 
Graded lesson material seeks to give to each his meat in due 
season. 

3. Guides in Adapting Methods. 

The Sunday school teacher must study the laws that 
govern the pupil's mind, because a knowledge of these laws 
is necessary in selecting the method of teaching best adapt- 
ed to the pupils. 

In all good teaching, the teacher must arouse the mind 
of the pupil and direct it towards the desired knowledge. 
Only when the teacher directs the pupil's mind and Causes 
it to reach out after a truth and get it for itself, is there 
real teaching. This important process is accomplished by 
various methods on the part of the teacher. These methods 
should differ according to the growth and development of 
the pupil's mind. For example, a method that will succeed 



INTRODUCTORY 13 

with a child will fail with a young man; a method that is 
suited to the period of youth will prove useless in the 
adult period. So, a good teacher must be able to accurately 
judge the stages of progress his pupils have made and be 
able to select the method of teaching which will best bring 
them up to the next higher stage. 

What is to determine the proper selection of methods 
in teaching? Clearly, it is the laws that govern the pupil's 
mind in a given period of development. For example, if 
the imagination is at its height, as in the primary period, 
the teacher should know it and teach by the story method ; 
if memory is at its height, as in the junior period, the 
teacher should know it and drill upon the memory work; 
if the love of heroes, or "hero worship/' is at its height, as 
in the intermediate period, the teacher should know it and 
emphasize the worthy deeds of Bible characters and Chris- 
tians of later times. 

Much of a teacher's skill is demonstrated by his selec- 
tion of methods of teaching. Much emphasis is laid upon 
the value of knowing the Bible, and rightly so ; much em- 
phasis is laid upon the value of knowing the pupil's mind 
and heart, and rightly so ; but simply to know these is not 
enough in teaching for one might be never so well versed 
in each of them yet fail as a teacher — because he does not 
know hozv to bring the two aogether. The "how" holds 
much of the secret of success in any line. 

The value of the "how" is seen in the marvelous inven- 
tions of Mr. Edison, who has learned how to put elec- 
tricity to practical uses ; he not only knows the principles 
which govern electricity but he knows how to apply those 
principles. Mr. Burbank, the "plant wizard," knows both 
the laws that govern plant life and the methods of utilizing 
those laws for practical purposes. Many Sunday school 
teachers are successful in molding their pupil's lives for 
God because they know the Bible, the laws that govern 
thinking, feeling and willing of their pupil's minds, and in 
addition to these two valuable elements, they know how to 
utilize the laws of the mind in teaching the Bible. 

In other words, these teachers have learned the secret 



i 4 PUPIL LIFE 

of selecting the method of teaching best adapted to their 
pupils in the light of a given lesson. A knowledge of psy- 
chology greatly helps in doing this. 

III. How to Learn Psychology* 

i. Study Books. Every Sunday school worker would 
do well to master some good text-books on psychology in 
order to learn the most important processes of the mind 
and the chief stages of mental development. 

From books on psychology teachers may learn the gen- 
eral facts about the mind and its processes. These are 
valuable as a background for further and more particular 
study. 

The teacher should know the pupil's mind in two ways : 
(i) in a general way; and (2) in particular. 

The first or general knowledge is valuable because it 
helps us to know what might be called the commonality of 
the pupil. As the normal life of the pupil unfolds in each 
stage of development there will be prominent certain ele- 
ments in common with other pupils of the same age. There 
is in each period a certain uniformity of knowledge, tem- 
perament, habits, and ideas. These are to be expected of 
pupils of about the same age and environment and these 
elements of character make possible happy companionship, 
family life, and community life. 

Such general characteristics as these can best be learned 
from books on psychology. But particular knowledge 
comes through the study of individuals. 

2. Study Individuals. Aside from the elements of com- 
monality, each pupil has his individual traits which set him 
off as a distinct personality and make it possible for him 
to be useful in the world. 

Teachers should take time at the point of sacrifice to 
study their pupils at short range. If possible, the teacher 
should have a personal acquaintance with each pupil, for 
a mere Sunday morning acquaintance will not make pos- 
sible knowledge sufficient for definite and personal teach- 
ing. The best method of teaching can be selected only 
when the teacher knows the peculiarities of the pupil 



INTRODUCTORY 15 

One teacher solved the problem in this way: She had 
a little book marked "My Class Account Book." Each 
pupil had a page. Following the name of each on the page 
was the birth date and whether or not the pupil was a 
Christian. Then followed the facts that had been obtained 
about the pupil's home influences, about the school life, 
about their dispositions, their ambitions, and their asso- 
ciates. These facts had been gathered from visits to the 
pupil's home, irom talks with the day school teacher and 
the friends and associates of each pupil. This teacher first 
studied the lesson, then turned to the life account of each 
pupil and planned to fit a message to each life. 

If the class is too large for such a plan as this, the pupils 
might be grouped and the facts gathered about each group. 

IV. Real Teaching. 

Real teaching includes reaching the intellect, the feel- 
ings, and the will. 

In a complete teaching process the teacher must succeed 
in arousing the pupil's mind and directing it to the point 
where it will seize upon the desired knowledge ; then the 
knowledge which it has learned, or the facts which have 
been taught, must be illustrated and applied to the point 
where the emotions are aroused and the pupil feels that 
he should do and be what has been taught ; then this blend- 
ing of the feelings with knowledge will deepen into con- 
viction and the pupil's will is moved to say, "I will do and 
be that," or "I will not do or be that." 

A speaker was presenting Foreign Missions to a coun- 
try church that had given nothing to benevolences for a 
year. He used a chart showing the foreign fields in which 
Southern Baptists do work, the number of missionaries in 
each, and the number of churches and schools and hospitals 
in each. When the appeal for gifts was made a young man 
gave five dollars. The speaker asked him if he had ever 
given so much to missions before. He said, "No." When 
the speaker asked, "Why did you give so much this time?" 
he replied, "I never knew before where my money went, 
and I never felt before like giving that much." 

Note the psychology of this incident — I know; I now 



16 PUPIL LIFE 

feel; I now do. The entire circle was completed; the intel- 
lect had been appealed to, the feelings had been stirred, and 
the will had been moved. 

The Sunday school teacher's aim should be character 
building, — and this depends upon moving the will for right 
and against wrong. This means that three things must be 
done — the mind must be enriched ; the feelings must be 
stirred by illustrating and applying the truth ; the will must 
act, insuring right doing. 

The aim or goal of the teacher is that the pupil should 
be led to do. Many people know what is right, yet do 
wrong. The Sunday school teacher's aim is to move the 
will for right and by this means build character. Our wills 
determine our choices ; our choices determine our habits ; 
our habits determine our characters ; our characters deter- 
mine our destinies. This is the sequence of character build- 
ing and upon this basis rests the insistence upon teaching 
in the Sunday school so as to move the pupil's will. 

V. The Teacher's Personality. 

The teacher's personality must vitalize the truth he 
teaches. In addition to effective teaching, as discussed 
above, the class must feel the power of a personality. Sun- 
day school teaching should not be simply a fine pedagogical 
performance ; it should not be "faultlessly perfect and icily 
cold." It is a poor idea of Sunday school teaching that the 
teacher simply passes over to the pupil some information 
which he did not previously have. 

All are familiar with the saying, "What you are must 
back up what you say." This shows the importance of 
Sunday school teachers being exemplary Christians. An 
unconverted Sunday school teacher is unthinkable, for no 
one can guide a traveller over a road which he himself has 
not travelled. The character of the teacher must shine 
through the teaching, for the pupils will likely learn more 
from the teacher's personality than from his words. Of 
many a teacher we have heard it said, "I do not remember 
much he said, but I can never forget how he made me 
feel." 

The Sunday school teacher's aim, therefore, should be a 



INTRODUCTORY 17 

combination of Christian truth taught to the pupil and 
Christian example lived before the pupil. "The truth must 
come through the person and not merely over his lips. It 
must come through his character, his affections, and his 
whole intellectual and moral being. Granted equal intelli- 
gence and study here is the difference we unconsciously 
discern between two teachers : the truth comes over one 
of them, but it conies through the other." 

Uncle John Vassar, the effective layman missionary 
worker of whom so many beautiful stories are told, was 
famous for his Christian influence as much as for his knowl- 
edge of the Scriptures. It was his loving heart and tender 
words, combined with simple Scripture texts, that won 
scores of people to the Savior. 

The personality of the Sunday school teacher counts 
mightily. Many a time the teacher must throw himself 
into the scales along with his Sunday morning teaching in 
order to stem the tide of influences that beat upon the 
pupils between Sundays. 



QUESTIONS TO GUIDE AND TEST LESSON STUDY. 

1. Define psychology. 

2. What three capacities constitute the mind? Illustrate. 

3. Why study psychology? 

4. Illustrate how a knowledge of the pupil's mind determines the 
selection of teaching material. 

5. Illustrate the proper selection of methods of teaching. 

6. Suggest how one may learn psychology. 

7. What does real teaching include? Illustrate. 

8. In what ways is the teacher's personality of value in teaching? 



(2) 



CHAPTER II. 
Haw We Learn. 
I. Psychology as Related to Physiology. 

Psychology is the science of mental processes, while 
physiology is the scientific study of the human body. Our 
minds and our bodies bear an essential relation to each 
other in all their workings and are mutually dependent. 
The "clay cottage/' as the body has been poetically called, 
is both the shelter and support of the mind, and also the 
instrument of the mind. The mind uses the brain and nerv- 
ous system as its instruments. 

As the shelter and support of the mind, it is a common 
experience that when the body is well the mind performs 
its functions with ease ; but when the body is sick the mind 
is hindered in its processes. The familiar maxim puts it, 
"A sound mind in a sound body," and observation teaches 
us that this is, as a rule, correct, although there have been 
notable exceptions in the case of some invalids who have 
had brilliant minds. 

As the instrument of the mind, the body conveys in- 
formation, concerning the material things about us, up to 
the mind through our five senses, and it also carries out 
the wishes of the mind through our muscles. "The cerebro- 
spinal system is like a telegraph system of which the brain 
is the central office, the nerves are the connecting lines 
and the special sense organs of touch, sight, smell, hearing, 
and taste are the outlying stations from which messages 
are sent in ; the muscles are the individuals to whom mes- 
sages from the central office are sent." 

Without these outlying stations, represented by the 
senses, our minds would be wholly isolated from the physi- 
cal world ; they would receive no messages and could send 
no orders to the muscles. In the light of this, it is apparent 
that a teacher should have some knowledge of the relation 
of the senses to the mind, since this relation involves the 
processes of both learning and doing. 

Evidences of this relation. An observant teacher knows 



HOW WE LEARN 19 

many general evidences of this relation between the 
mind and the senses. For example, drowsy pupils have dull 
minds, or when the emotions are stirred, there is wonderful 
bodily energy. Take a concrete case as an example ; sup- 
pose a boy sees a fire; what happens? His eyes see; the 
nerves from his eyes to his brain carry the message up to 
headquarters ; his brain telegraphs back to his muscles to 
run; his muscles obey and he runs. 

On the other hand, tired muscles fail to obey the com- 
mands of the mind ; aching eyes or fingers are unable to 
write. Hard lessons, such as the languages and mathe- 
matics, are usually taught in the forenoon before the body 
and mind become tired. Afternoon class work is hard be- 
cause pupils who are tired and drowsy have dull minds. 
The will is weaker when the body is tired. Temptations are 
harder to resist at night. Many persons will control appe- 
tites during the day but yield to temptation at night. 

The mind is more than brain or nerves. The mind 
uses the brain and nerves as instruments to do its bidding, 
but the mind is more than brain or nerves. Like its Crea- 
tor, the mind works in and through the material elements 
of the body — yet is above the body. 

II. Sensation. 

1. What is Meant by Sensation? Our minds get their 
knowledge of the things in the world about us through the 
five senses. As Bunyan put it, the town of Man-soul has 
five gateways leading into it. 

The five senses, like outlying telegraph stations, flash 
their messages along the nerve lines to the mind in the 
citadel of the town of Man-soul. These messages from 
the senses, or sense impressions — if delivered to the mind 
— create a sensation in the town of Man-soul ; but many 
messages that are started up the lines fall by the wayside ; 
they are not "delivered. " That is to say, the mind pays no 
attenton to many of them, for too many are sent. Our 
bodies are packed with sensation carriers ; millions of im- 
pressions are made upon the nerves and they start bravely 
up the nerve lines, but they never become sensations be- 
cause the mind never heeds them. 



20 PUPIL LIFE 

In other words, we are unconscious of millions of things 
that strike our senses. But the sense impressions that suc- 
ceed in getting the attention of the mind are sensations. 

A sensation is, therefore, the conscious impression, or 
the state of consciousness, produced by nerve action. 

2. True and False Sensation. The study of true and 
false sensations is interesting and profitable. If the senses 
send up true reports, all is well and good for knowledge is 
accumulated. But if the senses are not in normal condition 
and their reports are not true to nature, knowledge is hin- 
dered. For example, poor hearing or defective sight be- 
come great obstacles to learning. Chronic catarrh deprives 
one of the sense of smell and limits knoweldge. 

Teachers should know these things about their pupils 
so as to correct false impressions by appeals to other senses 
that are in normal condition. Wonderful work along these 
lines is done in schools for the blind, deaf and the mentally 
deficient. A notable example is that of Helen Kellar, whose 
teacher, Miss Sullivan, achieved world-wide fame because 
of what she accomplished with a pupil who was deprived 
of two of the most important senses — seeing and hearing. 
In many Sunday schools, special teachers are provided for 
the blind and the deaf, and for pupils who speak English 
poorly. Chinese pupils usually require a teacher for each 
pupil. 

III. Consciousness. 

When we are conscious, the experiences discussed under 
"Sensation" are possible ; but not when we are unconscious. 
All can recall instances of unconsciousness. But who can 
explain the mystery? Where is the mind when one faints 
or loses consciousness? Where is it when we are sound 
asleep? How do we wake from sleep, or come back to 
consciousness, when some one calls us ? How does a touch- 
message along the feeling nerves, or a sound-message along 
the hearing nerves bring us back to consciousness? We 
simply know the facts but cannot explain them. 

i. What, Then, Is Consciousness? Perhaps as good an 
answer as any is to say that we know we possess a "stream 



HOW WE LEARN 21 

of consciousness" or a "field of consciousness" made up of 
all that is in our minds and that it is constantly being 
changed by the sensations that come by way of the nerves. 
Further, we know that every person can think of his own 
thoughts, feelings, plans, etc., that make up the stream of 
consciousness. It is as if each one has a kind of inner eye 
that looks deliberately down upon all that comes into the 
mind. 

The mind of man possesses this power — mysterious and 
wonderful — of thinking about itself, knowing its own work- 
ings and products, and recognizing the elements which 
make up itself. How it does this is beyond explanation, 
save that w r e know from experience that it is true. 

The important thing in all this matter of consciousness, 
as regards "How We Learn, ,, is : only those facts which 
become a part of the "stream of consciousness" become a 
part of our accumulation of knowledge. Pupils must be 
conscious of the truths presented to them or they will not 
learn. The mind must seize upon the truths presented and 
make them a part of the "stream of consciousness," else 
the truths are of no value to the mind. 

In the light of the above it is easy to see how much 
so-called teaching is merely so much talking. It is not 
teaching unless the pupil's mind thinks the truths into his 
own consciousness ; only then is there some learning done ; 
hence, only then is there teaching done. 

2. The Relation of Consciousness to Sensation may be 

summed up under two points, as follows: (1) Nothing 
from the physical world comes into the "stream of con- 
sciousness" but sensations resulting from messages which 
nerves send. (2) By no means all of these messages are 
admitted into the "stream of consciousness." Too many 
seek admission ; myriads knock every moment. The outer 
world beats upon our senses and many messages start 
bravely up the nerve lines only to find the door of conscious- 
ness shut in their faces. Consciousness is like a great rail- 
road superintendent in his private office ; time is money to 
him and he cannot admit all who seek audience with him. 



22 PUPIL LIFE 

Each moment a choice must be made between many appli- 
cants. 

So consciousness admits only a few of the many appli- 
cants which knock; only those admitted are added to our 
stock of knowledge. The others vanish. 

IV. Attention. 

Attention is the "focusing of consciousness"; or "fo- 
cused consciousness. " When consciousness admits an 
"applicant" or "message brought up by the nerves/' and 
detains it in order to find out about it — that act is attention. 
Consciousness is "focused" upon this object; the thought- 
power is actively and consciously bent towards, or fastened 
upon, this object of thought. 

When we are conscious, every moment is characterized 
by some degree of attention. Even "inattention" does not 
mean a total lack of attention, but rather that the attention 
is momentarily focused upon something else than the ob- 
ject to which we should be attending. 

In discussing "How We Learn," it is evident that atten- 
tion holds an important place, since without attention there 
can be no learning. A fuller discussion of attention will 
be given in another chapter. 

V. Perception. 

i. What Is Perception.? "Perception is the mind tak- 
ing notice of whatever causes a sensation ; or, the work of 
the intellect in interpreting sense impressions ; or, it is that 
power by which the mind interprets the raw material 
brought to it by the senses." Sensations are not knowl- 
edge, but the "raw material out of which knowledge is 
slowly spun." Perception is like an interpreter for sensa- 
tions, making plain to us the meaning of sensations. 

The word perception means "to see through," or to dis- 
cover by means of the senses. Hence, in the process of 
perception the mind must see through a sensation and dis- 
cover its cause. A perception is a sensation plus thought. 
When the mind cognizes the cause of a sensation, the raw 
material has been spun into knowledge ; that is to say, the 



HOW WE LEARN 23 

cause of a sensation becomes a part of our stock of knowl- 
edge. For example, you hear a strange sound; you look 
around to locate it but you cannot do so, as it is unlike 
anything you have heard before; you ask, "What is that?" 
Someone suggests that you look out the window, and upon 
doing so you see a flying machine for the first time. You 
discover the cause of the sensation which came up to the 
mind through the ear-gate ; and, after that, the sight and 
sound of a flying machine is a part of your stock of knowl- 
edge and they are instantly recognized and accounted for; 
in other words, you perceive them instantly. 

An infant would not be able to interpret such a sensa- 
tion as the sound of a flying machine because of the lack 
of experience; to infants all sensations are hazy and in- 
definite, and the process of interpretation must come 
through experience. With adults, however, all common 
sights and sounds are instantly accounted for and without 
conscious effort because of previous experiences. In such 
cases, perception is perfect. 

The value of all this, to the teacher, lies in the fact 
that the act by which the mind transforms a sensation into 
a perception is the first step in getting knowledge. If the 
teacher speaks and the pupil's ear catches the sound, tele- 
graphs it up, but the mind ignores it, then there is no per- 
ception and of course no added knowledge. On the other 
hand, if the mind discovers the cause of the sensation and 
the pupil says, "Oh, I perceive," it is evident that the pupil 
has gained new knowledge. 

If the teacher can cause the eye to send up a message 
about the lesson, and at the samfc time cause the ear to 
send up a message about the same lesson, then the chances 
are that the two together will succeed in causing the mind 
to waive aside other things and give attention to this double 
sensation. And if, in addition to these two, the teacher 
can cause the hand to send up a third message by employing 
handwork, there is additional hope that the mind will attend 
to the triple sensation — and perceive the truth involved. 
Therefore the wise teacher will use as many gateways of 
approach to the mind as possible. In besieging the "Town 



24 PUPIL LIFE 

of Man-soul" storm as many openings in the wall as you 
can. 

2. The Cultivation of Perception. The teacher should 
take time to test and to strengthen the pupil's powers of 
perception. Do the senses give the right report to the 
mind? If not, why not? The answer to this question has 
led to the discovery of grave defects in many pupils. Poor 
eyes, poor hearing, bodies weak through improper food or 
lack of refreshing sleep, adenoids, and tonsils to be re- 
moved, etc., are common experiences with day school teach- 
ers. Such pupils may be in the Sunday school class and 
the teacher wonders why they are not bright, loving, and 
well behaved. 

The teacher not only should test the pupil's powers of 
perception but should also seek to train them. This is 
especially important with younger pupils. To children, the 
world is a strange land which must be learned through the 
process of perception. They should be encouraged to learn 
everything possible from the testimony of their senses. 
Sunday school teachers may easily test them upon what 
they see when object teaching is used, and upon how care- 
fully they read the Scripture, and upon what the words of 
the Scripture mean to them. 

VI. Apperception. 

i. What Is Apperception? This word is easily under- 
stood if divided into "ad," meaning to, and "perception"; 
it is the process by which we add to former perceptions. 
New truth is attracted by old truth of a like nature. We 
know a new thing when we can relate it to a well-known 
thing which is somewhat like it. 

When new knowledge is imparted by likening the un- 
known to the known, we have the process of apperception 
the principle of which is involved in the use of analogy, 
the simile, the metaphor, and association of ideas. This 
principle is likeness or resemblance. 

For example, a teacher out on the plains of the West 
was teaching about the Mount of Transfiguration and the 
class did not know what a mountain was. So the teacher 



HOW WE LEARN 25 

taught them the new idea "mountain" by beginning with 
a prairie dog's mound, with which they were familiar, and 
leading them to pile one mound upon another, in their 
imagination, until they builded up for themselves a mental 
picture of a mountain. Thus the unknown truth was taught 
by likening it to truth already known. 

When Jesus met the woman of Samaria at Jacob's well> 
He began His teaching to her by talking about water, with 
which she was familiar, and led her from what she knew, 
step by step, up to the great truth He wished her to learn ; 
He did it so skillfully that she went back into the town and 
said to her friends, "Come and see ; can this be the Christ?" 

Pestalozzi says, "It is easy to add to that which is al- 
ready possessed, and no wise teacher endeavors to com- 
mence instruction in a new subject before finding some- 
thing in the mind of the student into which the new truth 
may be engrafted." 

In studying "How We Learn," the application of this 
to the Sunday school teacher is : Know the mental equip- 
ment of your pupils so as to be able to discover and utilize 
that "something" into which the new truth may be en- 
grafted. The teacher's maxim in this connection might 
well be, "Begin with the known and proceed step by step 
to the related unknown." 

We have noticed the attempts of children to interpret 
new truth in terms of old truth, and this has resulted in 
their use of such expressions as : "Grandmother is pick- 
ing her geese," when it is snowing; "God's chariots are 
rolling," when it thunders ; calling the fern "a pot of green 
feathers," or a zebra a "donkey from the penitentiary" ; or 
speaking of dew on the grass as "the grass crying." All 
these indicate the child's dependence upon previous knowl- 
edge in understanding a new thing. Expression is possible 
only in terms of knowledge which the pupil already has, 
and if pupils express themselves in these peculiar ways it 
indicates that this is the way that they must learn. It is 
easy to see how these expressions prove that they learn 
new truths by means of truths already known, which proc- 
ess is apperception. 



26 PUPIL LIFE 

VII. Thought. 

The highest power the mind possesses is that of arrang- 
ing and classifying the knowledge which it has gained 
through the processes of attention and perception. This 
power to classify and arrange knowledge is called thought. 
Just as a skillful librarian classifies and arranges the books 
in the library and prepares catalogues and cross references 
so as to make them useful and easily available, so the mind, 
by its power of thought, arranges its store of knowledge ; 
it puts the new where it belongs in the mass of material 
already gathered, and puts thoughts together in groups for 
comparison and reference. 

VIII. Summary. 

In the discussion of "How We Learn," we have seen 
that the mind gets its knowledge of material things through 
the senses which, like out-stations of a telegraph, flash their 
sense impressions along the nerve lines. 

If these sense impressions are admitted to the stream of 
consciousness and the mind focusses upon them, the mind 
pays attention. 

If the mind takes notice of whatever causes the sensa- 
tion and succeeds in accounting for it, the mind perceives 
or sees through the cause of the sensation ; the act is called 
perception and the thing perceived becomes a part of the 
mind's stock of knowledge. 

If the mind receives a new perception somewhat similar 
to a previous perception, the new element in the perception 
is added to the old perception by the power of apperception. 

The mind has the power to classify and arrange the 
knowledge gained through attention and perception; this 
power is called thought 



QUESTIONS TO GUIDE AND TEST LESSON STUDY. 

1. State briefly the relation between psychology and physiology. 

2. Define* sensation. Name the kinds. 

3. What is consciousness? 

4. What is attention? 

5. What is meant by perception? Illustrate. Its value to a teacher? 

6. What is apperception? Illustrate. 

7. Define thought. To what is it compared? 



HOW WE LEARN 27 

TOPICS FOR FURTHER DISCUSSION. (OPTIONAL.) 

1. The Instincts. Instincts exist in germ at birth. A prominent 
function of education is to cultivate the instincts and bring them to their 
highest development. Some of the most interesting to Sunday school 
workers are: (1) The self -preservative, as self-preservation, fear and 
fighting; (2) the social, as sympathy, love of approbation, altruism; (3) 
imitation; (4) play; (5) the collective instinct; (6) the inquisitive; (7) 
the migratory; (8) the moral and the religious. 

2. Temperament. Temperament means literally a mixture; the idea 
back of it is that a person's temperament is determined by the proportion 
in which the elements making up his constitution are mixed. There are 
four elements: (1) sanguine, meaning full of blood, hence happy, hopeful; 
(2) phlegmatic, meaning slow, calm, not easily excited; (3) choleric, 
meaning full of energy and passion, having the power to impress others, 
as the pioneer, missionary or reformer; (4) melancholic, belonging to deep 
and brooding natures, as the poet, artist and the thinker. 

A simpler classification is into two classes: motor and sensory. Motor 
is quick, alert, includes the sanguine. Sensory is slow and includes 
the phlegmatic and energetic plodders. 

Reference: Kirkpatrick's "Fundamentals of Child Study"; Weigle's 
"The Pupil and the Teacher," chapter 8. 



CHAPTER III. 
Curiosity. 

Curiosity is one of the most easily recognized of all 
our mental states. All people have it. It manifests itself 
in many forms and degrees, but all are possessed with it 
to some degree. Curiosity is often made the subject of 
jokes and ridicule — very wrongly, unless it has gone beyond 
bounds and has become the morbid curiosity of some adults, 
or a meddlesome curiosity that offends the proprieties. It 
should be recognized as a God-given faculty and a most 
valuable one in the teaching process. What could be sadder 
than to have a child who never asked, "What is that?" or 
"Where did you get it?" Possibly the only thing sadder is 
an adult whose eye never brightens when looking at the 
strange or unusual. 

I. Definition. 

Curiosity may be defined tersely as a "desire to know." 
It is to the mind what appetite is to the body. It is a 
natural instinct or power of the soul. It is, then, a kind 
of "mental hunger" or "appetite of the mind." If strongly 
developed it might be called the "gnawing appetite of the 
mind." 

It manifests itself in all normal children. First, by 
rapid questions. To see a new or attractive thing is to 
want to know about it. They ask, "What is that?" and 
"What is it for?" and "Where did you get it?" almost in 
the same breath. We call them "walking interrogation 
points." Shall teachers repress this "mental hunger?" Cer- 
tainly not. Rather, satisfy it, utilize it, stimulate it. Un- 
less there is "appetite of the mind" to receive truth, it is 
useless to present truth to the mind. If the mind does not 
crave a certain truth it will not receive it, digest it and 
profit by it. 

Again, curiosity manifests itself by tearing down things, 
picking things to pieces, watching processes of construc- 
tion and attempting to make things. Hence, the child's love 



CURIOSITY 29 

for blocks and toys that come apart. The child is a "little 
scientist" and if encouraged may make great development 
in learning to construct things. 

It is told of Edison that when a boy he tore up many 
of his father's tools and appliances to see how they 
"worked." His father gave him more things to tear up 
and taught him to put things together. 

II. Types of Curiosity. 

1. The Curiosity of Children is chiefly concerning ob- 
jects — their exterior and general characteristics. It is 
quickly aroused and quickly satisfied. Children have but 
limited experience and are not concerned with the relation 
of one thing to another, so do not linger to look into things. 
They have few "organized interests," hence pass by with 
a glance and "What is that?" The more advanced pupil 
would linger to inquire into the thing more closely. Yet 
many times children ask the deepest questions of all and 
their best teachers cannot answer them. These questions, 
too, indicate a limited experience. 

2. The Curiosity of the Youth goes beyond the "What" 
and asks "Why?" This is an advance over the child's 
curiosity and is proof of the youth's accumulation of knowl- 
edge. Their "organized interests" are growing. They 
know enough to make them want to know more. 

The youth may be characterized as inquisitive. The 
word is derived from the Latin, meaning "searching into." 
What he already know r s leads him to seek further light and 
ask the reason for things. He inquires about curious facts 
in nature — as "Why do crawfish crawl backwards?" or 
about causes and effects, as "Why doesn't the thermometer 
freeze in winter?" 

3. The Curiosity of Adults has been developed through 
experience and knowledge of relations between things to 
the point of research. The milder form of this is investiga- 
tion, which means "inquiry into things step by step, or 
track by track." It is the picture of the hunter with his 
dogs following the track of his game. Closely akin to this 
is the love for exploration and discovery. Columbus had 



30 PUPIL LIFE 

a theory, or clue, which he followed out ; it led him to the 
new world. Newton saw an apple fall ; that clue led him to 
discover the law of gravitation. 

The adult mind has built up many organized interests ; 
these have been strengthened by the development of the 
reasoning powers ; the result is a delight to search for 
new information, to classify it and make conclusions. 

As we trace the development of curiosity through the 
periods of the unfolding life, we see it gathering new qual- 
ities all along and becoming in each period more valuable as 
an incentive to get knowledge. It is a "desire to know" 
or a "mental hunger" in each period but with a different 
bent in each. 

III. Its Teaching Value. 

The teaching value of curiosity lies in its relations. 
First of all, it is most intimately related to interest, since 
it is the means of securing interest. No curiosity means 
no interest. This alone makes it of great value to the 
teacher. 

Curiosity can be deepened into interest and interest is 
the key to attention. Attention insures learning or know- 
ing, hence it has great teaching value. Without attention 
there can be no teaching. 

Going a step further, we know that interest is the 
mother of attention arid attention is the mother of knowl- 
edge. In order to capture knowledge, we must capture both 
the mother and the grandmother. Curiosity is the trap we 
must set to capture them both. 

Changing the figure, curiosity is the first step leading 
upwards to the temple of knowledge. The full stairway is 
curiosity, interest, attention, knowledge. It is an easy step 
from attention into the temple of knowledge. This is the 
teaching process. Along this way the pupil should be led 
each Sunday. 

Must the teacher always begin by awakening curiosity? 
Certainly, if it is necessary to awaken interest. Sometimes 
the pupil is already interested. The teacher's first step is 
to find out about this. Curiosity is mental hunger; without 



CURIOSITY 31 

it, the mind will not open its mouth (as it were) to receive 
the teaching. 

IV. How to Awaken Curiosity. 

All methods for awakening curiosity may be summed 
up under two ; the appeal to the eye, and the appeal to the 
ear. These are easily utilized and our Sunday school helps 
abound in material adapted to each. To fail along this 
line is attributable to failure of the teacher to select ma- 
terial adapted to his particular class and to use it while 
teaching. 

1. The Appeal to the Eye. (1) Pictures are abundant 
and more and more attention is being given to their prep- 
aration for Sunday school use. Secure a good set of pic- 
tures of Bible lands as part of your "chest of tools, " When 
they are used, put them on the wall ; leave them up till 
the end of the quarter, or series, and review by them. The 
picture will recall the lesson and its truths. Pictures are of 
special value in teaching missions and temperance. Avoid 
the use of pictures which are inconsistent with the Bible 
facts. 

(2) Objects appeal to pupils of all ages. A raised map 
of Jerusalem will quicken the curiosity of pupils and add 
interest to many lessons each year. A model of the temple 
in Jerusalem can be used for teaching many lessons each 
year. Frequent use can be made of a model of an Eastern 
house with the stairway going up the outside. A little 
scroll may be used to illustrate any lesson regarding the 
history and make-up of the Bible. 

Caution. Let the object be a faithful copy of the thing 
it represents. Use it to teach facts, not spiritual truths — 
especially with the younger pupils. What they see makes 
the strongest pull on their understanding. A teacher once 
used a loaf of bread in teaching a lesson on "Jesus the 
Bread of Life" ; the little girl told her mother that the 
teacher said, "Jesus was a loaf of bread." What was the 
trouble? First of all, the lesson was beyond the child's 
comprehension. He could not grasp the spiritual truth of 
Jesus the Bread of Life. And the teacher used a material 



32 PUPIL LIFE 

thing to teach a spiritual truth, while the child had not de- 
veloped the power to make the transition from the material 
thing to the spiritual significance of it. 

(3) The black-board is the every-Sunday tool of a good 
teacher. Not to "draw on/' but to mark on. The simplest 
outline is the best for Sunday school teaching. Diagrams 
are better than finished pictures for teaching. The super- 
intendent may have a finished picture put on the board by 
an artist for the general review, but the teacher can't do 
that. It takes too much time even if the teacher is an 
artist. To draw it before the class would attract attention 
from the truth to be taught to the drawing of the picture. 

Draw the fewest possible lines and leave the pupil's 
imagination to fill in the details. In many classes use the 
board for writing outlines for drill work. 

2. The Appeal to the Ear. The story is the great means 
of awakening curiosity by appeal to the ear. Say, "I heard 
a story about a man who — " and the class is at once curious 
to know what happened to him. Say, "I had a strange ex- 
perience once when I was in — " and pause a moment ; cu- 
riosity will be excited ; then tell the story. The Pied Piper 
of Hamelin charmed all the children away from their homes 
and to follow him by the magic of his flute; the Sunday 
school teacher can charm children, and adults too, away 
from local attractions and lead them into realms of light 
and truth by the magic of a well-told Bible story. The 
charm of much that Jesus said lies in the fact that he spoke 
so many beautiful parables which are simply stories match- 
lessly told by a Master Teacher. The parables of the Prodi- 
gal Son and the Good Samaritan carry their ow£ teachings ; 
they need no comment ; no moral need be tacked on. 

A well-directed question will awaken curiosity. Ask, 
"How many mountains are mentioned in the Bible?" and 
see the class of boys begin to count. Ask, "What is the 
fifteenth book in the Old Testament or the New Testa- 
ment ?" and see the class begin and count on their fingers. 
"What in the Bible is quicker than the telephone in getting 
a long distance message?" After the class guesses then 



CURIOSITY 33 

teach the story of Daniel's Prayer when God sent the angel 
with the answer before Daniel was through praying. 

V. Summary and Suggested Methods. 

i. Arousing the Curiosity of Children, or the Beginners 

and Primaries. The general principle is this : The pupils 
are curious about things they can see and handle ; they ask 
about the outside of things chiefly. Hence their curiosity 
is confined to the concrete ; its range may be summed up 
under two heads, objects and stories ; in other words, things 
which appeal to the eye and to the ear. 

Hence, the method: Present Bible truth to children in 
concrete form only. Make a story of the lesson, illustrat- 
ing it with pictures and objects. Avoid abstract statements. 
Make a story of the truth or do not attempt to teach it. 

2. Arousing the Curiosity of Youth, or of Juniors and 

Intermediates. The general principle is this: The youth 
is inquisitive and constantly searching into things. He is 
learning rapidly and what he knows leads him to want to 
know more. He is fond of puzzles, curios and collections. 
His interests are largely in the concrete but go deeper than 
the mere outside ; he can be led to search for truths which 
do not appear on the surface. 

Hence, the method: The wise teacher will not do for 
the youth what he can be led to do for himself. Arouse his 
curiosity by hinting of something interesting then guide 
him in the discovery of it for himself. He is in the getting 
time of life; become his pilot and lead him to get Bible 
truth. 

The teacher may use some of the following suggestions : 
Make a curio cabinet; fill it with flowers from Palestine, 
shells from Galilee, cedar cones from Lebanon, olive wood 
from Jerusalem and souvenirs of all kinds ; many of these 
can be had from curio dealers. 

Oriental life, manners and customs offer a fascinating 
field of study; information regarding these is given in Bible 
dictionaries ; assign the work of investigation to your 
pupils. The flowers, birds and beasts of the Holy Land are 
interwoven into Old and New Testament narratives; have 

(8) 



34 PUPIL LIFE 

the pupils mount pictures of these and write a story about 
each. 

3. Arousing the Curiosity of Adults, or Seniors and 

Adults. The general principle is this : Pupils of this period 
enjoy investigation. They delight in searching for new 
information or for new relations between old truths, or new 
applications of old truth. 

Hence the method: Develop the class by encouraging 
them to use their own powers in discovering Bible truth. 
Combine the question and answer method of teaching with 
the lecture method ; emphasize the first, and lecture as little 
as possible. 

A general lecture is more and more discredited as a 
method of teaching in the Sunday school because the bene- 
fit of a lecture depends upon the preparation of the pupil 
to receive it as well as upon the clearness and force of 
the teacher; to lecture constantly to an adult class means 
that they will not study the lesson for themselves but will 
depend upon the teacher. 

A better plan is the "conversational" class plan which 
many teachers of adult classes are using. The teacher rec- 
ognizes the general ability of the pupils to think and as- 
signs to the various members of the class certain parts of 
the lesson outline ; these are given out a week ahead. Dur- 
ing the recitation the teacher acts as leader and timekeeper, 
while each member of the class discusses the topic as- 
signed to him or answers questions asked by others regard- 
ing this topic. The result is great interest on the part of 
the class ; good work done in lesson study and the members 
of the class generally developed as Bible students and ex- 
positors of Bible truths. 



QUESTIONS TO GUIDE AND TEST LESSON STUDY. 

1. Define curiosity. How does it manifest itself? 

2. State briefly the kind of curiosity possessed by children, by youths, 
and by adults. 

3. What is the teaching value of curiosity? 

4. Give several methods of awakening curiosity. 

6. State the best method for utilizing, in teaching, the curiosity of 
children and youths. 



CURIOSITY 35 

TOPICS FOR FURTHER DISCUSSION. (OPTIONAL.) 

1. Illustrate how stronger or newer stimuli excite curiosity. 

2. Illustrate a child's curiosity leading to further investigation, 

3. When does a pupil's interest in a thing cease? What then? 

4. In order to interest the class, how much of a 30-minute period 
should a teacher talk? 

References: Kirkpathick's "Child Study," Chapter X; Harrison's 
"Child Nature," Chapter II; James' "Talks to Teachers," Chapter X. 



CHAPTER IV. 
Attention. 

Many times we see things but do not notice them ; we 
hear things but do not understand them; and we touch 
things but do not feel them. Why? The simplest answer 
is that we are not paying attention. Another way of stat- 
ing the same thing is to say that the sensations resulting 
from seeing, hearing, touching, etc., were not admitted into 
our field of consciousness. Every day many things strike 
upon our senses without affecting us at all; they are not 
admitted into our field of consciousness. We pay them no 
attention. 

To quote the figure previously used, our consciousness 
is like the head of some great business concern who admits 
into his private office only a few of the seekers from the 
outside. When consciousness does open the office door 
and admits a sensation, it focuses upon it; or, it concen- 
trates its powers upon it ; we call this paying attention. 

I. Definition. Attention is the attitude of the mind, or 
the state of mind in which one or more of its powers are 
focused upon something which is presented to it. Stated 
briefly, attention is focused consciousness. It is the oppo- 
site of nonattention, which may be defined as diffused con- 
sciousness. 

Attention is like a sun-glass, or burning-glass, which 
gathers up and centralizes upon one object all the rays 
of the sun within its range. By this means Indians kindle 
fires without a match. The Indian caught and concen- 
trated the sunlight upon his wood by means of a sun-glass ; 
he used focused sunlight. 

Derivation of the word. Attention is derived from the 
Latin words "ad," meaning to or towards, and "tendere," 
meaning to stretch. According to the derivation, attention 
means the stretching out of the mind, or the mind's hand, 
as it were, after something which is desired. 

Scientists tell us that the smallest protoplasm or jelly- 
fish has the power to stretch itself out towards its food, to 



ATTENTION 37 

secure it and to retain the nutritious parts of it. Much 
more has the mind of human beings the power to stretch 
out towards that which interests it, secure it and assimilate 
the part which will aid in mental growth. 

II. Kinds of Attention. 

For practical purposes in Sunday school work, perhaps 
the two best known kinds of attention only need be men- 
tioned. They are the voluntary and the involuntary. 

1. Involuntary Attention. This is the kind of attention 
which we cannot help giving; it requires no effort of will. 
That which attracts involuntary attention knocks so hard 
upon the door, asking for admission, that we open the door 
involuntarily and sometimes in spite of the will. 

It requires no will power to pay attention to anything 
in which we feel great pleasure or pain. Hence, involuntary 
attention is controlled chiefly by our feelings. Soldiers 
in battle have been known to become so absorbed in the 
fight or so intense in their excitement that they did not 
know when they were wounded. Similar experiences have 
come to people in burning buildings or in wrecks. 

Involuntary attention is full of power and endurance. 
The felt interest which controls it arouses all the mental 
energies and the mind seems refreshed in its work rather 
than tired; this is because the mind finds pleasure in learn- 
ing the things in which it is interested. A boy will read 
for an hour or two if the story is full of interest for him ; 
his attention is involuntary and he is really unconscious of 
the fact that he is paying attention. 

A common example of involuntary attention is that of 
a person walking along a country road or a city street and 
commenting upon the various sights and sounds which are 
noticed. There is no effort in this case to concentrate at- 
tention, and each new appeal to the senses puts all other 
sensations out of the field of consciousness. 

2. Voluntary Attention. This is the kind of attention 
which we force ourselves to give. Therefore it requires 
will power, although it is aided by interest which is felt in 



38 PUPIL LIFE 

the subject to be learned. This kind of attention is but 
slightly developed before the twelfth year. 

In paying voluntary attention, when the lesson is hard, 
we notice that the pupil summons up his powers, knits his 
brow, and tries to put aside other attractions, and forces 
himself to pay attention even though he wishes to do 
something else. This kind of attention is the result of 
will power. 

Often in beginning a task we are conscious that our 
minds are wandering; then we exert ourselves to get a 
sort of pull on the mind and bring it back to its task. By 
sheer force of will we focus attention upon the task. This 
is in some respects the highest form of attention, and it is 
possible in any large degree with advanced pupils only. 

Suppose a child should go through a flower garden, 
gathering blossoms from every bush until its arms are full, 
then hearing the call of children across the street should 
throw the flowers down and run off to play. That would be 
a picture of involuntary attention. But suppose a botanist 
should go through the flower garden and select one flower, 
then sit down to study it with a microscope, and for hours 
be absorbed in examining its various parts. He would like- 
ly not know that the children were playing across the street. 
That would be an example of voluntary attention, or of 
concentration. 

Voluntary attention is usually short-lived and easily ex- 
hausted. The strain of attention is easily felt, and the 
mind becomes tired. A boy will feel tired in half an hour 
if the lesson he is studying is too hard. 

3. Relation of Voluntary Attention to Involuntary. At- 
tention must be involuntary, or the result of felt interest, 
if the mind does its best work in learning. Voluntary at- 
tention, the result of will power, may be necessary at first, 
but it must merge into involuntary attention if the learn- 
ing process continues without interruption. The will may 
start the powers of the mind to work, but unless interest 
in the subject develops and the attention becomes involun- 
tary, the mind soon tires of its effort, and there is a di- 
vision of attention between learning the thing and the 



ATTENTION 39 

effort of the mind to stick to its task until the learning 
process is complete. In the illustration of the botanist 
studying the flower, as suggested above, voluntary atten- 
tion might be emphasized at first, but as interest in the 
flower and its parts develop with study, involuntary atten- 
tion would direct the studying process and thus make con- 
centration possible. 

With this truth in mind, the teacher who must insist 
upon voluntary attention at the beginning of the lesson or 
subject to be learned, should endeavor to connect the sub- 
ject in some way with matters which interest the pupils 
so that the lesson may rise into involuntary or true atten- 
tion by means of the kindling of interest in it. The teacher 
who insists upon the memorization of certain passages 
should kindle interest in these passages by illustrating 
them, showing their uses, or by connecting them with pas- 
sages or stories which the pupil has previously learned. 

III. Its Teaching Value. 

Attention is absolutely essential to learning. If the 
mind does not attend it does not learn. Not to attend is 
to be absent mentally as well as physically. Learning is 
possible only where the mind is, and not always where 
the body is, for a pupil may be in the class and yet his 
mind may be a thousand miles away. Pupils are frequently 
present in body but absent in mind. 

So far as getting knowledge is concerned, the pupil had 
as well be absent from the class in body as to be absent 
from the class in mind. The teacher's task is to catch up 
with the pupil's absent mind, wherever it may be journey- 
ing, and to pull it back to the place where the teaching is. 

Remember the saying : "Interest is the mother of atten- 
tion ; attention is the mother of knowledge ; to secure the 
latter you must secure both its mother and its grand- 
mother." The mind of the pupil must work in unison with 
the mind of the teacher or there is no learning on the part 
of the pupil, and no teaching on the part of the teacher. 
"No one has mental fluid enough to spread out over all 
creation; it must settle down in a definite locality if the 
mind gets new knowledge." To do this is to pay attention. 



40 PUPIL LIFE 

IV. How to Get Attention. 

1. Some Mechanical and Practical Ways, (i) Do not 

begin until conditions are right. It is useless to attempt to 
teach when circumstances make it impossible for pupils to 
pay attention. Some conditions which can be controlled 
are : Light, heat, and ventilation. If the light shines in the 
eyes of the pupils it is easy to have them move. If the room 
is too hot or too cold it should be someone's business to 
regulate the heat. (2) Unnecessary sights and sounds. If 
your class can see others, curtain it off or turn the seats 
around. The poorest place for any class is the choir seats 
facing the whole auditorium. Request the Superintendent 
to protect you against loud talking, noises, and interrup- 
tions. 

See to it that all the class can hear distinctly, and see the 
teacher. Some may be deaf or near-sighted. Watch for 
evidences of fatigue and discover the cause. 

A boy went to sleep in class for several Sundays ; the 
teacher investigated and learned that the boy had taken a 
paper route, got up at daylight to deliver his papers and 
came to Sunday school without breakfast; sitting in the 
warm room after being hours in the cold, he naturally went 
to sleep. The teacher let him sleep and gave him special 
attention after the class. 

2. There Are Some Ways Which Will Not Secure At- 
tention. Threats, censure, or even demand, cannot quicken 
the pupil's interest in the lesson. These methods attract 
attention to themselves and away from the lesson. 

"Nothing can be more unphilosophical than an attempt 
to compel the wearied attention to new efforts by mere 
authority; as well try to compel dying embers to rekindle 
into a blaze by blowing upon them." 

If pupils do not pay attention, whose fault is it? Henry 
Ward Beecher is said to have told his sexton that if he saw 
anyone asleep during the sermon to come around to the 
pulpit and wake up the preacher. 

3. Other Suggestions Relating to Attention. (1) At- 
tention cannot be indefinitely sustained. Even involuntary 



ATTENTION 41 

attention is easily satisfied and flits away unless new as- 
pects of the subject are constantly developing. How often 
in listening to a friend talk have you "lost the thread of 
conversation"? Why? Because the friend did not change 
the subject often enough to keep up the interest. The 
teacher sees at once the necessity for variety in teaching. 
Appeal to the eye by using objects, pictures, and black- 
board illustrations ; then appeal to the ear in teaching the 
same truth by using appropriate stories and asking ques- 
tions ; then if possible appeal to the sense of touch by hav- 
ing the pupil reproduce the truth through some kind of 
hand work. 

(2) Interest is the basis of attention. 

Of all methods of securing attention, the appeal to 
interest is the most fundamental. "Interest is the mother 
of attention" ; and "interest is the motor power of atten- 
tion" ; and "interest is the greatest word in education" — all 
such expressions emphasize the value of interest in securing 
attention. 

The word interest is derived from Latin words which 
mean "to be a part of." Hence a truth is of interest to us 
when it bids fair to become a part of our own makeup, or to 
add to our happiness and usefulness. Teachers will at once 
see the necessity for studying the interests of their pupils. 
No pupil can be interested in an entirely new thing ; that is, 
a thing so new that there is nothing already in the expe- 
rience of the pupil for the new thing to become a part of ; 
nor will a pupil be interested in that which is already very 
familiar; that is, so familiar as to present no new aspects 
to his mind. A combination of a new truth with an old 
truth is essential to attention. "The old in a new setting 
or the new in an old setting always gains attention." 

The teacher's preparation of a lesson must include a 
search for some point of interest in the subject-matter 
itself which may be linked on to some interest already 
existing in the pupil's life. Suppose a Sunday school teacher 
attempts to teach a lesson on "The Gnostic Heresy," as 
found in Paul's letters to the churches of Asia, and the 
class pays' no attention. What is the matter? The teacher 



42 PUPIL LIFE 

has failed to find out where the pupil's mind is and to link 
it up with this new truth. A teacher once caught and held 
the attention of a class of men and aroused a spirited dis- 
cussion of Paul's Last Missionary Journey by first asking 
the men to tell the latest news about a certain prominent 
American who was then traveling in the Mediterranean 
lands, and whose experiences were being featured in the 
daily papers. Thus the teacher linked up a point of interest 
in the minds of the pupils with the Bible truth of the 
lesson. < ^WH 

Interest is the basis of attention ; therefore link some 
point of interest in the lesson to a kindred interest in the 
pupil's experience. 

V. Summary and Suggested Methods. 

i. Gaining the Attention of Children, or the Beginners 
and Primaries. 

The general principle is this : Children can render 
involuntary attention only. Will power has not developed 
with them in any great degree. Hence they cannot render 
voluntary attention to any extent. 

Hence the method: The burden of getting attention is 
upon the teacher. It is often necessary to awaken curiosity 
by an appeal to the eye, or by a question, or by saying "once 
upon a time." Then curiosity must be deepened into in- 
terest by additional points and illustrations. 

2. Gaining the Attention of Youths, or Juniors and 
Intermediates. 

The general principle is this : These pupils can pay vol- 
untary attention. They are, as a rule, attending day school, 
carrying an armful of books, studying their lessons, reciting 
under strict teachers, and receiving grades which deter- 
mine their class standing and promotion. 

If they can study for the day school teacher they can 
study for the Sunday school teacher. 

Hence the method: Encourage real study of the les- 
sons on the part of the pupil. Assign the lessons, expect 
them to be gotten, call for the information, utilize it in 
your teaching, compliment those who do the work. 



ATTENTION 43 

In modern Sunday school work, the emphasis in this 
period is first upon voluntary attention, since much of the 
teaching material is selections to be memorized. Yet the 
voluntary attention may easily become involuntary through 
interest, since the memory work is correlated with the 
stories about Bible characters. The memory work sug- 
gests the story, and the story recalls the memory verses. 

Graded lessons with this correlated memory work and 
the attractive hand work for each lesson furnishes the 
teacher with a basis for definite assignment of work, defi- 
nite tests of the pupils' knowledge, and for promotions 
with honor. 

3. Gaining the Attention of Adults, 

The general principle is this : Pitch the class work 
upon the basis of real study. Senior and Adult pupils have 
the ability to concentrate upon the lessons ,and to discover 
their teachings. But the teacher must be the leader and 
inspirer of the pupils. Unfortunately, many of the pupils 
are absorbed with other things and rely upon the teacher 
for the major part of the work in Bible study ; taking note 
of this condition, the wise teacher will try to lead the 
pupil to a point of self-reliance and real study of the 
lesson material. 

In practically all adults of normal development, there 
is a love for study in some degree, at least, and a delight in 
acquiring information about matters of general interest 
and practical value. 

Hence the method: Since Adults can pay attention and 
are capable of learning facts in which they are interested, 
the teacher must solve the problem of awakened interest 
in Bible study and must discover the best method of con- 
ducting the class recitation so as to make the time count 
for the most. 

It is a safe suggestion to offer that as far as possible the 
class be led to participate in the discussion of the lesson 
rather than encouraged to expect a lecture from the teacher. 
In order to secure a helpful participation in the lesson, 
topics for study should be assigned a week ahead. This 



44 PUPIL LIFE 

method of conducting an Adult class is popularly known as 
the seminar method. But each teacher must decide upon 
the method of teaching for his own class. Study the tastes 
of the pupils and their general capabilities, and fit the 
method to these general conditions. 

Lay a plan for a quarter's work, and win the consent of 
the class to study by this plan. At the beginning of a 
quarter give a preview of the lesson material and chief 
points of interest; this will quicken the activities of the 
class mightily. Some member of the class might suggest 
a method of study which would prove the best for the class 
to follow. A class of young business men would prefer 
one method of study; a class of college girls would prefer 
another method, and a class of mothers would prefer still 
another method. 



QUESTIONS TO GUIDE3 AND TEST LESSON STUDY. 

1. Define attention. Illustrate it. 

2. Name and describe the kinds of attention. 

3. What is the relation of voluntary to involuntary attention? 

4. State the teaching value of attention. 

5. Suggest some practical ways to get attention. 

6. What is the relation of interest to attention? Illustrate a teach- 
er's use of interest in getting attention. 

7. Suggest a good method of getting the attention of children, of 
youths, and of adults. 

TOPICS FOR FURTHER DISCUSSION. (OPTIONAL.) 

1. Should a Sunday school teacher seek to gain voluntary or in- 
voluntary attention? In what departments is each the best? 

2. Upon what does voluntary attention really depend? 

3. When should a teacher request, or demand, or elicit attention? 

4. What difference in a pupil's ability to pay attention at six and 
at twelve? What difference does this make in methods of teaching? 

5. What methods have you tried in gaining the attention of unin- 
terested pupils? Why did you succeed or fail? 

6. Is there a difference in methods for gaining and for sustaining 
attention? State the differences. 

References: Brumbaugh's "Making of a Teacher," Chapters 3, 4; 
James' "Talks to teachers," Chapters, 1, 11; Trumbull's "Teachings and 
Teachers," pages 78ff, 138ff. 



CHAPTER V. 
Apperception. 

In the chapter on "How We Learn," a brief discussion 
of apperception was given. We are now to make a more 
careful study of this important mental process. 

I. Definitions. 

i. Recall, first of all, the discussion of perception pre- 
viously given. Perception was defined as the power of the 
mind to see through a sensation, or whatever caused the 
sensation, by interpreting that which caused it. To know 
the cause of a sensation means that the mind makes the 
cause a part of its stock of knowledge. The first step in 
getting knowledge is the act of the mind by which it trans- 
forms a sensation into a perception; this it does by dis- 
covering the cause of the sensation. On the other hand 
not to discover the cause of a sensation is to be oblivious 
to it. Should we fail to discover the causes of all the 
sensations which come up to the mind from the senses, it 
would mean that we would ignore all the messages brought 
from the outside world by the nerves, and hence we would 
learn nothing at all. 

For example, suppose we hear a strange sound; we in- 
vestigate until we account for it and discover our first fly- 
ing machine or automobile or victrola. Not to investigate 
and account for the sound would, of course, mean not to 
acquire the knowledge. 

2. Apperception Means "adding to our perceptions 9 '; 

hence it is a process by which the mind adds to former 
perceptions gained by the process described above. Ap- 
perception is the act or process of adding a new idea or 
series of new ideas to an old one. 

Gregory, in "The Seven Laws of Teaching," sums up 
the principle of apperception thus : "The truth to be taught 
must be learned through truth already known." Known 
truths are like magnets attracting to themselves all new 
truths which resemble them. The known truths not only 



46 PUPIL LIFE 

attract the new truths, but also illuminate them and assimi- 
late them, thus in a very real sense adding to themselves. 
"Apperception is to the mind what digestion is to the body ; 
the body assimilates food and produces tissue, while the 
mind assimilates knowledge and gains strength to acquire 
more knowledge." 

As previously stated, the underlying principle of ap- 
perception is that of likeness or resemblance, and it is in- 
volved in the use of analogy, association of ideas, etc. By 
such processes, the mind takes hold of new ideas. It has 
been said that the three conditions of good teaching are: 
first, association; second, association; third, association. 

To illustrate: Since childhood, each of us has been 
building up an accumulation of vehicle knowledge. It be- 
gan with the simpler vehicles, such as children's carriages, 
buggies, and wagons, and we have added to the general 
idea such improvements as rubber-tire buggies, coaches, 
tallyhos, street cars, railway trains, etc. With this vehicle 
knowledge in our minds, we recognized the first automobile 
as a vehicle, and its parts were at once interpreted and 
assimilated by our vehicle knowledge. We recognized cer- 
tain parts of the automobile which were common to all 
vehicles, and interpreted the new parts, or the unknown, 
in the light of the known. The result was that our minds 
added to the former vehicle knowledge this new conception 
of a vehicle which is self-propelling. 

The application to the Sunday school teacher is clear. 
The truths presented to the pupils must find in their minds 
a group of friends to welcome them, else they will wander 
about for a little while, finding no abiding place and go 
on their way. 

3. The Apperceptive Mass. 

By the apperceptive mass we mean that set of ideas 
in our minds which attracts and absorbs the new idea pre- 
sented to the mind. 

Each pupil has his apperceptive mass which is made up 
of all the knowledge which he has been able to accumulate. 
We may imagine it as a great collection or heap of knowl- 



APPERCEPTION 47 

edge laid up in our mental store-houses. We might further 
imagine that this collection or heap of knowledge is sub- 
divided into a great number of groups each of which con- 
tains a particular kind of knowledge. Just as kinfolks get 
together in groups at a fair or picnic, so the different kinds 
of knowledge that are kin naturally gravitate together and 
make groups. We may imagine that each pupil's apper- 
ceptive mass is composed of as many groups as there are 
kinds of knowledge which he has acquired. 

Of course, no two pupils will be alike in the number 
of groups or in the size of the groups which make up the 
apperceptive mass. This is accounted for by heredity and 
environment and by the personalities and dispositions of 
the pupils. 

4. How the Process of Apperception Works. 

Having in mind the picture of the different groups of 
knowledge which make up the apperceptive mass of an in- 
dividual pupil, let us fancy the process of apperception. 
Here comes a sensation traveling along the nerve tracks up 
to the mind; it knocks for admission; consciousness opens 
the door, admits it and begins at once to discover the 
cause. Consciousness can understand and interpret its 
cause only by referring it to its kindred apperceptive 
group. So the sensation is started out on a kin hunt. It 
visits group after group, but finds no welcome word, no 
extended hand, no familiar voice. Each group ignores it 
Finally it escapes out a nearby ear, and is gone forever. 

This, in imagination, yet in a very real sense, is what 
happens when the teacher's "words go in one ear and out 
the other." 

The teaching point is apparent— the idea that fails to 
find a kindred apperceptive group — goes out! Result — no 
added knowledge. 

We may easily imagine the opposite experence ; the 
new idea starts on the round of apperceptive groups and 
soon one group calls to it, extends a hand, saying : "Come 
in with us and abide ; we are of your kind." So, finding a 
group of kinsfolk, it sticks and stays. It is slightly dif- 



48 PUPIL LIFE 

ferent from all other members of the group as each boy is 
different from his brothers, but there is a common kinship. 
The "slightly different part" is the part which "adds to" 
the former knowledge represented by the group. 

5. Dull and Bright Pupils. 

The Sunday school teacher will soon know the dull and 
the bright pupils. What makes the difference? The dif- 
ference is in the apperceptive mass of the pupils, or in their 
ability to immediately refer the new idea to its proper 
group of kindred ideas. The pupil who can "take things in" 
quickly is the one who immediately refers the new to the 
kindred group of old ideas. The dull pupil has difficulty 
in doing this and requires longer time to complete the 
process. 

A boy once was asked by his teacher why he couldn't 
work an example in arithmetic. He replied, "I don't know, 
less it is I haven't got enough example-sense to work it 
with." That was psychologically correct, for he was stat- 
ing in boy-language a fundamental principle of psychology 
— "New truth can be learned only by means of truth already 
known." 

The application to the Sunday school teacher is ap- 
parent ; find out how much your pupils know ; by questions, 
test the amount and accuracy of their apperceptive powers. 
Distinguish between the bright and the dull pupils. Get 
down to the level of their knowledge, taking nothing for 
granted, and build up from what they know to the point 
you wish them to attain. Do not "teach above their heads," 
but lead them step by step, according to their ability, to re 
ceive and assimilate knowledge. 

Upon this principle of teaching, "according to their abil- 
ity to receive and assimilate," rests the insistence upon 
grading the pupils and using Graded Lessons. If the lesson 
material is "beyond them," it is useless. If out of the 
same Bible lesson truths can be selected that are within 
their range, teaching is effective. When lessons are within 
the pupil's range these lessons can be assimilated by means 
of the kindred material already in their minds. 



APPERCEPTION 49 

II. Apperception as Related to Interest and to Memory. 

1. As Related to Interest. We are not interested in 
discussions of things about which we know nothing, but 
we are interested in discussions of things known to us and 
especially if there is a chance to get new light on them. 
Without interest there is no attention and therefore no 
learning. 

Hence there is an intimate relation between the apper- 
ceptive mass and interest. The apperceptive mass is the 
basis of interest because interest arises out of previous 
knowledge and experiences. So when the Sunday school 
teacher speaks of Perea, or Terhaka, or "the mouldy bread 
of the Gibeonites," and the class pays no attention, it is 
evident that these things are beyond their range. If the 
point mentioned is of much importance the teacher must 
stop, go back to a common point in history and geography 
and from that point build up to an understanding of the 
person or place mentioned. When the truth is beyond the 
range of the pupil's apperceptive mass it is impossible to 
teach it except upon the suggestion just given. 

2. As Related to Memory. We learn in the study of 
memory that one way to strengthen it is by a judicious as- 
sociation of ideas. We can appreciate this fact all the 
more since studying the facts just mentioned about the 
process of apperception, since apperception is but another 
name for the general process of the association of ideas. 
We can also understand why so much of the so-called teach- 
ing makes no fixed impression upon the pupil's mind. These 
facts were presented without proper relation to other facts, 
and they did not find their place in a kindred group of 
facts, hence they passed out of mind and were lost to 
memory. 

The application to the Sunday school teacher is plain; 
attempt to teach less and take time enough to associate new 
truth with truth already known. Study the methods of 
teaching and develop skill in presenting and illustrating the 
truth so that it will be associated with ideas already fixed 
in the pupil's mind. 

(4) 



5o PUPIL LIFE 

III. The Teaching Value of Apperception. 

The teaching value of apperception is in this : it enables 
the pupil to add to his stock of knowledge by linking new 
truth to old truth. It builds upon previous knowledge as 
a foundation. This is the only way the pupil can learn a 
new truth ; hence learning is possible only upon the basis 
of the apperceptive principle. New truth must be "grafted 
upon old truth." 

Further, the process of apperception necessitates the 
teacher's finding the level of the class, as far as their knowl- 
edge goes, and omitting from the recitation the truths 
which the class cannot perceive. Suppose the pupil says 
that a lesson is "too hard"; what does he really mean? He 
means that the apperceptive principle does not work for 
him, and that his mind does not take hold of the lesson ; this 
may be because the pupil's mind has not the apperceptive 
jgroup sufficiently built up, or has not been able to wake the 
group up to the point of activity sufficiently to grasp the 
truth. In either case the teacher must come in with sugges- 
tions about things which are like this new truth, or with 
illustrations out of the pupil's experience to throw light 
upon the truth. 

On the other hand, a lesson is "too easy" when it con- 
tains truths exactly or mainly like the ideas already in 
the pupil's mind. The pupil says, "I know it already," 
which means that there are no slightly different elements in 
it upon which the mind may work in associating it with 
previous ideas. 

IV. How to Utilize Apperception in Teaching. 

I. In order to make a new truth clear, the teacher must 
show that it is like some truth which the pupil knows. Be 
able to say, "This new truth is like this other truth or 
experience which you already know." Hence the key to 
the apperceptive principle is that of likeness or resemblance. 

To illustrate : A teacher was asked on short notice to 
teach a class of Junior boys the lesson of the Plagues, 
the first nine of which were to be studied. He knew that 
success was possible only on the basis of finding a suitable 



APPERCEPTION 51 

analogy between the lesson and some experience familiar 
to the boys. So he began the search for the truth in 
the lesson like something which he could discover in a 
boy's experience. Several truths suggested themselves, as : 
"Slavery and escape from it" ; and "Resisting God's will 
and the consequences" ; but it was evident that the boys 
had no experience with either slavery or resisting God's 
will upon which to build the lesson. Finally the teacher 
hit upon this truth : "Winning the game of life." 

He introduced the lesson by suggesting that there was a 
great game on in Egypt. The boys asked, "Where?" 
"Who was playing?" etc. He referred them to their Bibles 
to find out. Point by point, by question and answer, he 
drew out from them that there were two great teams 
matched against each other; Moses captain of one, Pha- 
raoh captain of the other. Each plague was made to 
represent an "inning" of the game. Each plague was care- 
fully studied as to its effect upon Pharaoh and the result 
chalked down against him. After the ninth plague was 
studied the question came up, "Who w r on?" and "Why?" 
The boys were all attention and their eyes were glistening 
as the teacher put the question, "Can anyone win against 
God?" They were ready with the answer, "No; we must 
play on God's team if we win." Then came the quiet hush 
of the closing moment of the teaching period when the 
teacher asked each one, "Are you on God's side?" 

The next day one of the boys met the teacher on the 
street ; the teacher asked him when it was that Pharaoh 
said that Israel might go over the river to worship. The 
boy answered, "In the eighth inning." The teacher had 
succeeded in linking up a new truth with a game which was 
quite familiar to a boy and the teachings of the lesson 
were fixed through this process. 

The Apostle Paul proceeded upon this principle when 
he met the philosophers on Mars' Hill and said to them, 
"I perceive that in all things you are very religious," and 
then told them of the altar he had noticed dedicated to 
"an unknown God"; and proceeding from this well known 
fact, step by step, he unfolded to them truths about the 
true God so well known to him. 



52 PUPIL LIFE 

2. Steps the Teacher Must Take. In utilizing the proc- 
ess of apperception, the teacher must take two important 
steps: (i) select as a starting point something which is 
seen or known by the pupil; (2) go forward by means of 
comparisons from the known truth to the new or unknown 
truth. 

These two steps may be worked out by answering two 
questions: (1) What in my pupil's experience is like the 
truth in this lesson? (2) What stories, illustrations, com- 
parisons, or word pictures will best throw light upon the 
new or unknown truths of this lesson? 

In answering the first of these questions, the teacher 
may have to search closely for the truth to be taught. 
The facts of a single lesson will contain many truths. 
The teacher should select the one for which a starting 
point or point of contact can be discovered in the pupil's 
experience. Those truths for which no common starting 
point in the pupil's experience can be found, simply cannot 
be taught; to attempt it is like "the blind leading the 
blind with only an empty lamp to light the way." 

In answering the second question, the teacher will be 
led to search for illustrations and comparisons which will 
develop the lesson and throw light upon the unfamiliar 
truth in it. 

The experience of Jesus with the young lawyer illus- 
trates the two steps suggested. The young lawyer asked 
Jesus, "What must I do to inherit eternal life?" There was 
a fine chance for the Greatest Teacher to teach a great 
truth to an unusually bright pupil. The Great Teacher 
did two things : 

(1) He made a point of contact. Knowing his pupil was 
a lawyer, Jesus asked, "What is written in the law?" Thus 
Jesus immediately established a point of contact and 
stepped upon the plane of his pupil's understanding. The 
young lawyer's interest was awakened and his appercep- 
tive mass was aroused. Out of something in this discus- 
sion came the young lawyer's next question, "Who is my 
neighbor?" 

(2) Jesus proceeded from the known to the unknown 



APPERCEPTION 53 

in teaching the answer to the question, "Who is my neigh- 
bor ?" He did this by telling the story of the good Samar- 
itan. The young lawyer was familiar with the setting and 
the characters of this story, but the new truth that he 
learned was concerning the kindness of the Samaritan as 
contrasted with the unkindness of both the priests and 
Levite. When he got that new truth, the process of ap- 
perception worked. 

V. Summary and Suggested Methods. 

i. The Principle of Apperception as Applied to Child- 
hood, or Beginners and Primaries. 

The general principle is this: The perception of children 
is limited and often imperfect because they lack expe- 
rience. Words mean to them only what the apperceptive 
group makes them mean. Many teachers of children talk 
over their pupils' heads, using words which they cannot 
understand. Much of the socalled teaching means nothing 
but words from which they get no ideas. 

Hence the method: Strive constantly to keep your teach- 
ing within the comprehension of the pupil. Test the teach- 
ing at each step of the way. If the pupils cannot give 
back the teaching in their own words, they did not learn 
it. If they use words in the wrong sense, take time to cor- 
rect them. Use objects and pictures to help them under- 
stand words and to build up the apperceptive group. 

2. The Principle of Apperception as Applied to Youths, 

or Juniors and Intermediates. 

The general principle is this : These pupils have acquired 
a large amount of general knowledge which relates espe- 
cially to home, nature, and the common customs and habits 
of life. Each year of this period they are developing more 
and more the power of association of ideas. 

Hence the method: Know your pupil's life and search 
there for analogies. Do not take for granted that they 
know more than they really do. They will likely have 
many wrong conceptions due to a lack of experience or 
to calling up the wrong apperceptive group and associating 
an idea with a group not properly related to it; as when 



54 PUPIL LIFE 

the little boy said his sliced pineapple was wooden lemon- 
ade. The teacher's task is to correct these wrong concep- 
tions. 

If the pupils of this period are properly graded and 
modern Graded Lessons are taught them, the careful teach- 
er may be practically certain of a good piece of teaching 
each Sunday. 

3. The Principle of Apperception as Applied to Adults. 

The general principle is this: Adults have the ability to 
associate ideas and to note the likeness or difference be- 
tween truths. Hence the teacher of Adults usually has 
very little trouble in finding a suitable analogy for use 
in teaching the lesson. Attention and memory are quick- 
ened in the Adult mind by this process, and are easily se- 
cured. 

Hence the method: Present the new truth in an old 
setting, or the well known truth in a new setting. Choose 
your analogies and illustrations out of experiences common 
to the whole class. If the class is large and composed of 
several groups or a variety of occupations, try to know the 
various groups represented and to wrap up your teaching 
in the experiences of each group. If the teacher finds this 
impossible and teaches a part of the class only, it is proof 
of the fact that the class is too large for the teacher and 
should be divided. 



QUESTIONS TO GUIDE AND TEST LESSON STUDY. 

1. Define apperception. Illustrate it. 

2. What is meant by the apperceptive mass? Give an illustration. 

3. Show how the process of apperception works. 

4. What is the fundamental difference between a dull and a bright 
pupil? 

5. Show the relation of apperception to interest and attention. 

6. What is the teaching value of apperception? 

7. Illustrate the process of making new truths clear. 

8. In utilizing the process of apperception, what steps must a teacher 
take? Describe the process by which Jesus taught the Young Lawyer. 

9. What is the general principle of apperception as applied to chil- 
dren, to youths, and to adults. 



APPERCEPTION 



55 



TOPICS FOR FURTHER DISCUSSION. (OPTIONAL.) 

'telling" and "hearing" 



"illustration" and a 



1. Why is much of the teacher's "telling" and "hearing" of the 
"recitation" not real teaching? 

2. What is a true "point of contact"? 

3. Distinguish between the "analogy" and an 
"point of contact." 

4. Why is much that is told to children forgotten so quickly? 

5. Illustrate how association of ideas colors what we hear and read. 

References: Trumbull's "Teaching and Teachers," pages 3-35; Du- 
bois' "The Point of Contact in Teaching"; James' "Talks to Teachers," 
Chapter IX; "Halleck's "Psychology," pages 84ff, and 11 Iff. 



CHAPTER VI. 

Memory. 

We think of memory as that power of our minds which 
brings our past experiences back to the focus of conscious- 
ness, or "to our tongue's end," and enables us to tell what 
we have previously learned. This power to bring back, 
or to restore, is the most noticeable feature of the process 
of memory. Yet the process of memory includes more than 
that. 

I. Definition. 

A simple definition of memory is : "When the mind acts 
in such a way that it records, retains, and restores to the 
focus of consciousness the idea it has gained by its own 
activity, it is said to perform an act of memory." 

These ideas which the mind records are gotten through 
sensation and perception, as we have learned in a previous 
chapter. These ideas (i) are formed in the mind, (2) 
become a member of some group made up of kindred ideas, 
and (3) pass out of the focus of consciousness as others 
come in. 

If these ideas are recalled to consciousness frequently, 
they are restored with more and more ease. Having once 
become a member of a group of ideas, they seek to come 
again whenever a suggestion or mention is made of a 
member of the group to which they belong. Each time 
they come back we say that we "remember them." 

Only a few of our ideas — only a section of the stream 
of consciousness — is ever present in consciousness at one 
time. Yet their effects linger and they have a tendency 
to repeat themselves. In a general way these are the 
fundamental facts about memory. 

Note three essentials of the definition: Record, retain, 
and restore. Stated in other terms, they are: 
Apprehension, or fixing in memory. 
Retention, or keeping in memory. 
Reproduction, or bringing back to the focus of con- 
sciousness. 



MEMORY 57 

The test of memory is the power of reproduction. It is 
a poor sort of memory that one has who knows a thing 
but cannot tell it. To really know a thing is to be able 
to tell it — to reproduce it. And the secret of reproduction 
lies in the successful apprehension and retention of facts. 
It is as if a policeman had caught a criminal — apprehension ; 
put him in jail — retention; but when the court asked for 
him to be brought to trial he was gone, and the policeman 
could not bring him forth — no reproduction. 

The opposite of memory is forgetfulness, which may be 
partial or total. To forget is a common experience. Why 
do we forget? Usually because the idea has been imper- 
fectly recorded by the mind. The impression the idea 
made upon the mind was slight, hence it was not firmly 
fixed. Ideas are said to cut their pathways in the mind. 
It is like making a line on a wax tablet such as the ancient 
people wrote upon ; a single impression might be so slight 
as to scarcely be noticed, but to retrace this impression 
again and again would make it so deep that it would be 
lasting and easily discerned. So the cure for forgetfulness 
is interested attention to the matter of deepening impres- 
sions. The power to reproduce or to restore facts and 
images depends upon the depth of the original impression 
made upon the mind. The teacher's concern therefore 
should be to make deep impressions — and they will be 
lasting. 

Note two other familiar terms — remembering and rec- 
ollecting. When the pupil remembers, reproduction is easy 
and a delight. When he can remember, facts come to mind 
easily and immediately upon demand; it requires no effort 
of will to reproduce them. But such facts and images are 
those which are best known — such as the oft repeated 
Bible verses, vivid scenes that stir the imagination, and 
scenes from home life, and everyday experience. 

On the other hand, an imperfect memory forces the 
pupil to recollect in order to reproduce facts. We notice 
the pupil as he shuts his eyes, compresses his lips, knits 
his brow, and re-collects what was poorly impressed upon 
his mind. The teachef may help this re-collecting process 



58 PUPIL LIFE 

by hints as to when the fact was studied, or where in the 
book it is found, or the picture which illustrated it. If the 
pupil can re-collect, the fact will be more easily brought 
to mind next time and still more easily the next time, until 
the process of memory results in being able to reproduce 
it easily. 

Hence, when facts or ideas can be reproduced with little 
or no conscious effort, we are said to remember them. 
When conscious effort is required, we recollect them. 

II. Kinds of Memory. 

i. Active and Passive Memory. The classification of 
memory into active and passive is chiefly upon the basis of 
attention. According to the degree of attention exercised, 
memory assumes either an active or a passive aspect. 

Passive memory is the result of involuntary attention 
and is about the same as remembering, discussed above. 
Things perfectly well known can be reproduced by passive 
memory, which is without conscious effort. Active mem- 
ory means voluntary attention, and is about the same as 
recollecting. Things not perfectly well known must be 
reproduced by active memory, which requires an effort. 

2. Verbal and Logical Memory. Verbal memory is mem- 
ory by rote, committing words to memory, "parrotlike," 
with no special concern about their meaning. This kind 
of memory has its place in teaching pupils the names of 
the books of the Bible, facts about geography, and outlines 
of Bible history. 

In the Primary and Junior Departments, verbal memory 
is the basis of drill work upon the selected memory pass- 
ages ; however, good teachers in doing this work will lead 
the pupil a step further, and give him an intelligent idea 
of the meaning of these passages. Verbal memory alone 
— that is, without explanation of the meaning of words — 
is a rather poor teaching process. A notable example of 
the detrimental results of such teaching is seen in the old 
Chinese educational system which was based upon verbal 
memory without the accompanying process of explanation 
and development of the thought contained in the passages 



MEMORY 59 

memorized. This explains, in a great measure, the lack of 
progress in the Chinese nation. Now that this method has 
been done away with and Western methods of education 
have been introduced in China, these people will rapidly 
develop the ability to think for themselves instead of merely 
memorizing, parrotlike, the sayings of others. 

Logical memory is by mastery of the thought contained 
in the passage. Pupils of advanced grades are capable of 
logical memory, and by it they learn the themes and cen- 
tral truths of the books of the Bible and the secret of 
success or failure in the lives of Bible characters. 

In the later years of the Intermediate period, the pupils 
develop logical memory in associating facts and ideas upon 
the basis of similarity or contrast. In the Senior period, 
and in the Adult period, logical memory comes to its 
fullest development and these pupils can search for rela- 
tions between old and new facts ; things far removed in 
time and place can be brought together in the mind, and 
their likes and opposites can be noted ; the mind is stimu- 
lated to reflect upon them and to investigate their fullest 
meaning. 

III. The Teaching Value of Memory. 

i. Memory must always have an honored place among 
the powers of the mind, since it is essential to any prog- 
ress whatever in gaming knowledge. Since memory re- 
tains, without it every item of knowledge would be lost 
like water poured through a bottomless bucket. Without 
memory to retain the ideas that comes into the mind, 
everything would "go in one ear and out the other." Mem- 
ory stops up the other ear. 

Yet it is well to keep in mind that mere memorizing is 
not necessarily true learning. The famous "Blind Alec" of 
Scotland committed the entire Bible to memory. He could 
begin or finish any verse of Scripture called for ; if given 
the number of any verse in any chapter, he could at once 
repeat it. Yet, when tested as to the meaning of the 
verses or even of the words, it was evident that he had 
never acquired a single Bible idea, and had no understand- 



60 PUPIL LIFE 

ing of the truths or duties of the Bible. Knowing words 
is not necessarily knowing their meaning. 

"There is a well authenticated instance of a student who 
actually learned books of Euclid by heart, but could not 
tell the difference between an angle and a triangle." 

2. Memory furnishes us with an accumulation of knowl- 
edge which is our stock in trade for life's work ; it enables 
us to accumulate our "library of life." Sad indeed would 
be our state if we had to acquire over and over again the 
names of the familiar things in the home and in everyday 
affairs. Hence memory saves us endless mental effort. 

3. Memory gives pleasure by enabling us to recall facts, 
experiences, and choice selections once fixed in mind, and 
to make use of them. A brilliant conversationalist and 
ready speaker has this power, while the less gifted one 
thinks of many fine things to say after the opportunity 
has passed away. 

4. Memory is an indispensable requisite in the use of the 
imagination. It furnishes material out of which the imag- 
ination is to build new images. Imagination, on the other 
hand, is an aid to memory because it makes facts real and 
living. Hence, memory and imagination are mutually help- 
ful. 

IV. How to Strengthen Memory. 

Teachers desire that their pupils shall remember what 
is taught them ; therefore they should give much attention 
to the conditions of memory. Some of the evidently essen- 
tial conditions of memory, which must be observed by 
teachers if the mind is to retain the facts which are taught, 
are the following: 

1. Secure interested attention in the truths taught. 

2. Fix the truth in the pupil's mind by repetition or 

drill. 

3. Fix the truths in the pupil's mind by association 

of ideas. 
Consider briefly each of these methods: 



MEMORY 61 

i. Securing Attention. 

How may teachers secure the interested attention of 
the pupils in the lesson material which is to be taught? 

(i) By choosing language and illustrations in line with 
the pupil's interests. Only what the pupils attend to with 
interest will be likely to stick in their memories ; hence 
it is useless to talk to the pupils about things which they 
cannot comprehend ; and, it is useless to use language not 
understood by the pupils. In neither case will the teacher 
be able to secure the interested attention of the pupil. 

On the other hand, when the teacher uses language and 
illustrations which are within the comprehension of the 
pupil, then the pupil's interested attention is easily secured 
and the truths taught will likely be remembered. When 
Jesus was teaching the multitudes he used the simplest 
language and illustrated his points by the commonest ex- 
periences ; but when speaking to the Scribes and Pharisees 
in the Temple, he referred to the law and the proper obe- 
dience of it ; thus he met both types of pupils on the plane 
of their understanding, and secured their interested atten- 
tion. 

The teacher must select language and illustrations which 
are upon the plane of the pupil's understanding, else there 
can be no fixing of the facts in the pupil's mind. 

(2) By presenting the lesson truths in an unusual way. 
We remember the strange things we have seen. Can you 
ever forget the first time you saw Niagara, or the ocean, 
or snow-capped mountains in the summertime? Can you 
forget the first automobile or the first airship you saw? 

We remember the strange things we have heard. We 
never forget the stories of the old soldiers about battles, 
wounds, and death ; nor the stories of the missionaries 
about their sacrifices and their joys in service; nor the 
sermon preached from the strange text; nor the lesson 
illustrated by an unusual yet appropriate story. 

The wise teacher will, of course, avoid being sensational 
or extremely dramatic, for any good illustration must be 
appropriate and within reason. For example, it would 



62 PUPIL LIFE 

hardly be wise to illustrate Paul's vision of Christ on the 
Damascus road by touching off a flashlight in the class, 
likely resulting in frightening the pupils and causing them 
to forget the very truth which should be illustrated. It is 
not wise to tell fanciful or far-fetched stories which cause 
the pupils to say, "I don't believe it." 

Rather, seek illustrations appealing to both the eye and 
the ear which are appropriate to the truth to be taught. 
Use only those which enforce the truth naturally. The ap- 
propriate illustration does no violence ; it charms and quick- 
ens. This kind of teaching has no monotony. Monotony 
kills. Variety freshens. If the method of teaching is ap- 
propriate to both the truth and the pupil, it cannot be 
monotonous. 

The class of boys in the corner had no teacher. The 
lesson was from the 53d chapter of Isaiah, "He was wound- 
ed for our transgressions." An old soldier of the Civil War 
consented to "take the class" — but he did more, he taught 
the class. The superintendent of the school noticed the 
unusual quiet in that class, the strange look upon the boys' 
faces, and their unbroken attention to the old soldier's 
words. Tiptoeing up, he saw the old veteran's sleeves 
rolled up and the boys touching with their fingers the 
wounds upon his arms as he told them the story of his 
suffering for his country; then came the strange hush as 
he told them how Jesus was wounded — in hands, side, feet 
and brow — for them. Do you think the boys ever forgot 
it? It was unusual but beautifully appropriate. 

2. Drill and Review. 

Which do you know best, the verses of a song or 
the chorus of a song? Which of the verses of familiar 
songs do you know best : the first, second, and last — or the 
thi£d? Why? 

The practical suggestion here is regarding the value of 
review and drill in Sunday school teaching. It should form 
a large part of the teaching process in all grades of the 
Sunday school; in the earlier years of the pupil's life, it 
should be used more than in the advanced years ; but re- 



MEMORY 63 

view and drill are essential in all classes in fixing facts, 
choice texts, outlines, or fundamental truths. The adult 
pupils enjoy it as much as do the children if it is not over- 
done. Some great teachers assert that at least one-third 
of the teaching time should be given to review and drill, 
if the pupils are to know thoroughly the essential truths 
of the course of study for a given number of lessons. 

3. Association of Ideas. 

As suggested above, under the discussion of logical 
memory, the power of association of ideas develops chiefly 
after the twelfth year and teaching upon the basis of this 
power of association should apply to pupils of the advanced 
grades. 

The chief work of the teacher of advanced pupils is to 
search for and discover natural associations of likeness or 
difference in Bible truths and Bible characters. For ex- 
ample, in a series of biographical lessons the pupils will de- 
light in grouping the characters and in noting the common 
characteristics and the peculiarities of each. Contrast the 
life of Moses with that of Samuel ; the life of Joshua with 
that of David ; the writings of Paul w r ith those of Peter. 

Working still further upon the principle of association 
of ideas, the teacher may apply it to the lessons of an entire 
quarter and discover a common theme and connection 
which bind the lessons to each other like the links in a 
chain. It is a good plan to review previous lessons at each 
convenient stopping point or at the end of a great subject, 
since review aids the process of association of ideas. Bible 
facts cannot be comprehended by a single reading, and the 
thruths contained in them cannot be grasped and associa- 
tions with other truths formed by a casual glance at them ; 
hence the review gives the mind an opportunity to gather 
up the important truths of the lessons and to associate them 
with truths previously learned. 

A good principle in teaching is the following: Fix the 
facts in the mind of the pupil by drill and review; anchor 
these facts in the pupil's mind by weaving them into a 
systematic relation to each other and to facts previously 
learned. 



64 PUPIL LIFE 

V. Summary and Suggested Methods. 

i. Memory Work in Childhood, or with Beginners and 

Primaries. The general principle in this period is this: The 
pupils are too young to memorize much by their own effort. 
They are dependent chiefly upon the teacher's leadership in 
drill, review and explanation. 

Hence the method: Strengthen memory by repetition; 
use simple selections ; go over a few memory selections 
many times. Each repetition deepens and fixes more firmly 
the^ impressions. Once "well pressed in," the mind retains 
the facts and they are reproduced with ease. 

Use the choice memory passages from the Bible, the 
hymns, catechisms, etc., which are furnished in the Graded 
Lessons. These selections are so planned as to match the 
ability of the pupils to learn and appreciate them, if proper- 
ly explained or "developed" by the teacher. 

The day school studies help much in this development. 
Pupils six, seven and eight years old develop greatly with 
each succeeding year and memorize with more ease and 
pleasure. 

2. Memory Work in Youth, or with Juniors and Inter- 
mediates. 

The general principle in this period is this: The pupils 
can memorize by two processes — repetition and association 
of ideas. The emphasis is strong upon both of these proc- 
esses, but with this difference : in the Junior Department, 
the emphasis should be upon repetition more than upon 
association of ideas ; while in the Intermediate Department 
the emphasis should be increasingly upon association of 
ideas. 

Hence the method: Drill, drill, drill. By this process 
fix names and words of Scripture. Then lead the pupil to 
discover natural associations between the new ideas and 
the old, and between things alike and unlike. 

Plan two things : (a) to make the impression upon the 
mind as deep as possible ; and (b) to associate this impres- 
sion with kindred facts and ideas already in the pupil's 
mind. In this period of life, these two principles must 



MEMORY 65 

enter into the process of fixing facts in the pupil's mem- 
ory. If in the teaching of every lesson teachers could 
succeed in making a deep impression with the truth and 
a natural association of that truth with truths previously 
known, each lesson would stick and stay in the memory of 
the pupils. 

3. Memory Work with Seniors and Adults. 

The general principle is this : The pupils memorize by 
repetition but slightly as compared with their delight in 
all forms of logical memory, or association of ideas. 

Hence the method: Discover underlying causes and 
effects, principles and applications, and lead the class to 
grasp them. If the pupils get these underlying truths the 
facts will be easily remembered. 

Teachers of Adults do well to put supreme value upon 
the relation of lesson truths to the lives of their pupils. 
This is practical teaching. The literature prepared for 
Adult classes gives comments worked out on this basis. 
Even if the membership of an Adult class is large, the 
teacher should strive to know the life work of each pupil. 
The teacher can secure this information by using enroll- 
ment cards with blanks for these points. There will likely 
be in the class both professional men and women, and stu- 
dents, and working men and women. The wise teacher 
will know these separate groups and the interests repre- 
sented by them, drawing illustrations from these various 
lines of work, and wrapping up the teachings of the lesson 
in the language of the pupils. 



QUESTIONS TO GUIDE AND TEST LESSON STUDY. 

1. Define memory. 

2. State in other terms the three essentials of memory. 

3. Name and define the kinds of memory. 

4. Give three suggestions as to the teaching value of memory. 

5. Give three suggestions for strengthening memory. 

6. State .the general principle for memory work in childhood, in 
youth, and in adult years. 

TOPICS FOR FURTHER DISCUSSION. (OPTIONAL.) 

1. Which makes the deeper impression, words or things? In what 
periods of life? 

2. Is it possible to teach so that all members of a class will re- 
member? WThat sized class? What ages? How? 

8. What is the relation of voluntary attention to memory? Illustrate. 

(5) 



66 PUPIL LIFE 

4. Illustrate the relation of the age of the pupil to what is required 
of the memory; make a law for each Department. 

5. What relation does play bear to memory? Music to memory? 
Why? Yoder, in his study of the boyhood of great men, found that most 
of them were noted players when boys; how do you interpret this? 

6. Distinguish between amusement and play and the relation of each 
to memory. Distinguish between amusement and interest. 

References: Halleck's Psychology, Chapters 5, 6; James' "Talks to 
Teachers," Chapter XII; Stalker's "Christian Psychology," Chapter IV. 



CHAPTER VII. 
Imagination. 

The imagination is one of the most valuable and joy- 
producing of our mental processes. It may be abused and 
much may be charged up to it which it does not deserve, 
as when one says to another, "Oh, you just imagine that"; 
but, more frequently, too little value is placed upon it and 
it is neglected and undeveloped to the detriment of intel- 
lectual and spiritual culture. 

Properly fed and exercised, the imagination becomes 
most useful in visualizing facts. For instance, it is 
only by means of the imagination, or the "eye of the soul," 
that we can know in any degree the glories of heaven or 
the horrors of hell, or appreciate many of the sublime de- 
scriptions of scenes in the Old and New Testaments. On 
the other hand, when improperly developed, the imagina- 
tion becomes possibly the most degrading factor in life. 

I. Definition. 

"Imagination is the power of the mind to re-present, to 
modify and to combine objects previously known." Or, the 
power of the mind to make images out of material which 
the mind possesses. 

We have already seen that the material which the mind 
possesses comes through the gateway of the senses and 
knocks at the door of consciousness ; if admitted, and per- 
ceived, it becomes a part of our mental stock in trade. This 
material once received by the mind through perception can 
be brought up again and worked into various combinations. 
Memory brings it up again and imagination creates new 
images out of it. Imagination is dependent upon memory 
for its materials ; it creates in the sense of making new 
combinations. Its product is the new thing not previously 
in the mind. 

Hence, imagination is the image-building faculty; the 
picture-forming power. Or the power of the mind by 
which it converts its experiences into images. 



68 PUPIL LIFE 

The "image" which it builds may be unreal — frequently 
is. No such thing may ever have been seen or heard of. 
Yet the parts which make it up can all be recognized. The 
old material has simply been combined differently. In Bun- 
yan's "Pilgrim's Progress," the old dragon was an imag- 
inary combination of lizard, bat, crocodile and snake. The 
famous Trojan Horse filled with armed men before the 
walls of Troy existed only in the imagination of Virgil and 
his readers. The Revelation contains glorious pictures or 
images made up of materials known to us all, but wonder- 
fully combined. 

What the eye sees is real — the result of perception; 
what the mind sees is an image — imaginary, and the result 
of imagination. The image cannot be perceived through 
the senses. 

II. Kinds of Imagination. 

i. Fancy. In childhood imagination is "golden and 
gorgeous'' and "glowing"; it has "run riot," facts and 
fancies are all confused, breaking all the common rules and 
disregarding restrictions. By means of it the child lives in 
"wonderland" and fancy like a magic wand changes boxes 
into castles and sticks into horses or princes and princesses 
at will. This is why the child loves a fairy story. By 
imagination the child steps over into the story and becomes 
the leading character; laughing if the experiences are 
happy, crying if they are sad. 

2. Imitative Imagination. In childhood we observe the 
fondness to "play like" some one else and act out their 
experiences. Children usually imitate those whom they 
admire ; the girl will be mother to the dolls and the boy 
will be the father or the policeman or the grocer man. 
We commonly say they are "little monkeys." The trait 
is an indication of their bent ; it may help teachers antici- 
pate their ambitions and teach so as to strengthen the good. 

3. "Toned Down" Imagination* 

In the period of youth the "golden and gorgeous" does 
not attract because the pupil has gathered information 
from all sides. He knows all about the fairies and Santa 



IMAGINATION 69 

Claus. Has he lost his imagination? No. It craves a 
different diet, however. His imagination is kindled by 
"true and true" stories, by stories of heroic men and their 
deeds. They are beginning to be hero worshippers and 
any great feat of strength or heroic sacrifice charms and 
delights them. They want to "be like" the hero. 

4. Creative Imagination. This variety of imagination 
is seen all along the line of the pupil's experience, although 
manifesting itself in different ways. Creative imagination 
deliberately re-combines former experiences into new 
images. The child says, "I am building a house" and piles 
up the blocks or sand into a curious heap. The boy says, 
"I am building a house," and piles up the snow or logs 
of wood. The man says, "I am building a house," and piles 
up the modern skyscraper. 

Creative imagination works by combining the results 
of former knowledge and experiences into forms hitherto 
unknown ; it is always constructive and works toward a 
plan. Also, it is accompanied by a desire to produce some- 
thing new or novel. 

Creative imagination is of great practical value. Science 
is dependent upon it for progress. Every new invention is 
the result of it. "The interests which it serves are as 
varied as all life and all art, ranging from the little girl 
who makes new patterns for her doll's dress and the cook 
who "gets up" a new salad, to the lofty imagination of the 
great musical genius or of the scientific discoverer." 

III. Its Teaching Value. 

1. The imagination is of great value, pedagogically, be- 
cause it strengthens memory by making truths real and 
living. When we once see a truth with the "mind's eye" 
it is firmly fixed. The childhood stories are never for- 
gotten because by means of the imagination they were 
first made real and throbbed with life and movement. Who 
can forget the "Uncle Remus" or the "King Arthur" stories 
or the baby Moses or the child Jesus in the manger, 
if they were at all well told to us in childhood. They are 
so firmly fixed by the power of imagination that all our 



70 PUPIL LIFE 

experiences since cannot dim their glow as we remember 
them. 

In our experiences as students of history, did we not 
have to visualize, see with our imaginations, the old kings 
with their armies as they marched and fought, built cities 
and tore them down? Of course we did. Not until we 
marched with them in imagination, looked them in the 
faces, heard them talk, watched them fight could we re- 
member them. 

The application to the Sunday school teacher is ap- 
parent. The Bible is written with an Oriental background. 
Our imaginations must bring this up else our knowledge 
of many things in it will be dim and our memory of them 
will fade. Hence, the necessity of teachers studying the 
Land as well as the Book. There is no chance to forget 
the parable of the Good Samaritan if the facts about the 
road from Jerusalem to Jericho are well in mind. To 
appreciate many of the beauties of the Sermon on the 
Mount the teacher must know the customs of the people, 
from which illustrations are taken and the geography of 
the surrounding country to which references are made. 

Young people will imagine these scenes with great vivid- 
ness if the teacher will present in an interesting way the 
facts upon which the imagination can work. 

This is especially true when teaching Bible biography. 
There is the added attraction of the personal character. 
Students should be led to clothe the characters with life 
and discover the peculiarities of each. Let them walk 
with them and talk with them, and their hearts will burn 
within them as these great men and women speak to them 
by the way. In this wav, Bible characters will influence 
the characters of the pupils. 

A teacher who appreciated this fact once asked the 
pupils in the class to imagine they were Martha, the sister 
of Mary and Lazarus, and to write some one a letter such 
as Martha might have written. The following is the letter 
exactly as a twelve-year-old girl wrote it : 

Bethany, Judea, A. D. 

Dear Salome: It is quite a while since I wrote you. 



IMAGINATION 71 

You have heard me speak of Jesus and how much we all 
love him. He comes to our home often and I feel as if I 
would like to sit down and listen to him and hear all he 
has to say. 

But, as he is a guest I must do all the work and get 
the meals and do all that I can to make it pleasant for him. 

Mary sits down and listens to what he has to say, then 
tells me after he is gone. She will not help me about the 
work or meals, only when he is not here. 

Oh ! I must tell you the good news, as we can't help but 
loving him since he raised Lazarus. I suppose you must 
have heard about it, as Lazarus was so sick. I did all I 
could for him but he died before Jesus came. We sent for 
Jesus when he was first taken sick, but as Jesus did not 
come at once, he died. 

About four days afterwards, when our friends came to 
comfort us, Jesus came at the peril of his life and restored 
our brother to life. Oh ! we cant' help but loving him ! 

I feel so proud of what Mary did when Jesus was telling 
how he must soon die. Just the other day she got our vase 
of precious ointment and poured it over his feet. Judas 
did not like it. He said it had been wasted and it could 
have been sold and the money used to help the poor. But 
Jesus did not mind. He says her deed shall be known 
everywhere the gospel is told. 

But I must close now. Jesus will be back from Jerusa- 
lem to stay w r ith us tonight. He will go up again tomorrow 
to the feast of the Passover. 

From your loving friend, MARTHA. 

*Given to the author by Miss Nannie Lee Frayser, of Louisville, Ky. 

2. Helps the teacher sympathize with the pupil's strug- 
gles. To the Sunday school teacher especially the imagina- 
tion is valuable because it awakens and deepens our sym- 
pathies for all who need the Gospel or Christian comfort. 
In this particular the imagination has a direct relation to 
our feelings ; when we imagine the condition of the or- 
phans, the heathen, or the famine-stricken we see it so 
vividly that it stirs our feelings, moving the will to action. 



72 PUPIL LIFE 

Hence the uselessness of appeals to some people to support 
our missionary enterprises when they have no facts upon 
which their imaginations may work; and, the necessity of 
teaching the facts about missions. 

The Bible throbs with the message of helpfulness to 
others. Teachers who stir their pupils to respond to this 
message must furnish facts regarding the needy ones and 
tell the pupils of these needs. Do not tell them in abstract, 
statistical form but put them into a story that will picture 
the conditions and stir the imagination, awakening sym- 
pathy. A speaker was making an appeal for a certain mis- 
sion station in China and by means of the stereopticon and 
vivid word pictures he showed the desperate need of a 
hospital. When the offering was taken and a certain young 
man gave quite liberally. He had been "opposed to mis- 
sions" before that. When asked why he gave, he said it 
was because he saw the situation and felt like helping. The 
facts presented by the speaker had done their work; 
through the imagination they stirred his feelings and 
moved his sympathy, causing his will to act. 

A young man volunteered for China. When asked why, 
he said he saw a picture the upper part of which showed 
a long line of preachers waiting to preach "trial sermons" 
in a great city pulpit, while the lower part showed one lone 
man with a candle in his hand bravely marching out into 
the black heathendom of China, and he couldn't get away 
from it. What was the matter? His imagination had 
stirred his sympathy and moved his will to act. 

3. Imagination is Productive of Ideals. "Ideals are 
standards which the imagination forms and sets before us 
as measures of conduct." Sunday school teachers will de- 
sire that the pupils shall choose the best Bible characters 
as ideals and shape their lives after these noble patterns. 

Hero worship is a shifting thing — today admiring the 
great musician, tomorrow the athlete, or orator, or business 
man. Ideals are more or less fixed, being made up of the 
admirable qualities of many former favorites. These quali- 
ties make up a kind of composite picture or image of what 



IMAGINATION 73 

the pupil would be ; they form a goal or ideal toward which 
the pupil strives. 

To many, these ideals become very real — not hazy, in- 
definite dreams about things ; but definite, determining fac- 
tors in life. What the young person is, he is because of 
what he is striving to be. That young doctor studies under 
the great surgeon so as to be like him ; the girl devotes 
herself to music to be like the great singer. 

Therefore, these ideals have a tremendous power in 
shaping life and character. They are like the pole star to 
the mariner, giving him direction and shaping his course. 
Every young person is influenced by ideals of some kind — 
high or low, worthy or unworthy. 

The Sunday school teacher should, if possible, know the 
ideals of the members of the class. There is no greater 
"point of contact.'' Speak of the ideal of a pupil and im- 
mediately interest is aroused, attention is given and a 
"hook" is ready upon which to hang a truth. 

The Sunday school teacher has the great privilege of 
helping to shape and fix the ideals of the class, and of 
helping to make right choice of service, especially as touch- 
ing Christian work. Help the pupils to get a clear con- 
ception of the needs and opportunities of this age; set up 
standards of comparison in service for them. 

(a) Arrange for representatives of various lines of 
Christian service to speak to the class occasionally. Have 
a lkyman to present "stewardship" ; a missionary to present 
the call of the foreign field ; a minister to present the claims 
of the ministry; a city missionary to present the needs at 
home. 

(b) Be interested in the books the members of the class 
read. Biographies, especially, are mighty in their power to 
shape ideals. Make much of the reading of great lives ; 
have the pupils report upon what they have read. 

IV. How to Cultivate the Imagination. 

i. The Teacher's Imagination must be constantly in 
evidence in teaching. Like teacher, like class, in this re- 
spect as well as in many others. An unimaginative teacher 



74 PUPIL LIFE 

means an unimaginative class, but an imaginative teacher 
means an imaginative class. How may the teacher culti- 
vate the right use of the imagination in teaching? The 
answer is simple : use your imagination in teaching. Begin 
using what you have. Study to improve what you have. 
Note a few practical suggestions : 

(a) Study the art of story telling. Can you not imagine 
Eli telling Samuel about his mother's love? Get some 
good volume of Bible stories and study them as models. 
Learn one, then try telling it to some children or the 
servants. If they listen till you are through, you have done 
well. Note the effect on them and try to improve on it 
next time. 1 

(b) Study the background of history and geography 
and weave in legitimate facts. These touches of imagina- 
tion add charm and hold attention. In the story of the 
four men who brought the paralytic to be healed by the 
Master, it would be legitimate to say, "I imagine that as 
they approached the crowded house they asked each other, 
'How shall we ever get through the crowd/ and they laid 
the stretcher down gently under the shade of an olive tree 
while two of the friends went to find a way ; the other two 
stayed with their sick friend and told him what they saw." 2 

2. The Pupil's Imagination can be cultivated by stimu- 
lating it to act. The teacher may state the facts of the 
story and say to the class : "Now, can't you shut your 
eyes and in your imagination see Caleb and Joshua looking 
for a good strong stick to hang those grapes on, and don't 
you see the stick sag down in the middle because they are 
so heavy, and can't you see how they pick their way care- 
fully over the stony road, keeping a sharp lookout for big 
giants behind every rock?" 

Practically every lesson can be illustrated by good pic- 
tures. The Sunday school supply houses furnish them. 
Secure a full set of Bible pictures such as Perry's or 



1 A good volume is "Old Stories of the East," by the A. B. Baldwin Co. 
Dr. Pell's "Story of David" and "Story of Jesus" are especially good. 

2 A good book to have at hand to give facts about the land and the 
people among whom Jesus lived is "A History of Christianity," by 
Gardner. 



IMAGINATION 75 

Brown's ; if it is possible to get the most beautiful of all, 
have a set of Tissot's. Show the picture and have the pupils 
tell the story, filling in the details as they imagine them 
from their studies. Occasionally have a pupil prepare to 
tell the lesson story in full ; or have the pupils read short 
extracts of the most vivid scenes in the lesson. Have 
pupils write the story of today's lesson and read it in class 
next Sunday as a review. 

V. Summary and Suggested Methods. 

1. Using the Imagination in Teaching Children, or Be- 
ginners and Primaries. 

The general principle is : The constant use of the story 
as the one method of presenting Bible truth. Drill and re- 
view, of course, to fix the facts presented in the story. In 
teaching children the story method is the one method to 
use in the Sunday school or in the day school. Modern 
day school teachers of younger children make a story of 
everything, even arithmetic. Everything is playlike or 
make believe. 

Hence the method is the constant appeal to the imag- 
ination through the story. This arouses interest and leads 
to imitation. The child by imagination becomes the chief 
character of the story and while the story is being told 
the child feels and lives out all this character says and 
does. Watch the effect on the child's feelings when a 
story is being told and note how it laughs or cries through 
sympathy with the different experiences. 

Plan the story carefully. Put yourself into it as you 
tell it. Make it appeal to the child's imagination through 
its charm of description, its movement, its climax and satis- 
factory outcome. 

2. Using the Imagination in Teaching Youths, or 

Juniors and Intermediates. 

The general principle is: The imagination of these 
pupils is stirred by stories of real experiences of bravery 
and daring. They love to know about men and deeds. 
They are no longer attracted by the fanciful stories that 
appeal to childhood. 



76 PUPIL LIFE 

Hence the method: (i) Discard highly imaginative and 
unreal illustrations ; use biography, personal experences and 
nature stories. 

Fortunately, the Bible is the most attractive story book 
in the world for these pupils. They are charmed with its 
men and deeds, its heroes and heroines and its martyrs. 
Such characters stir the imagination of the pupil and be- 
come his ideals. Hold them up in all their strength and 
greatness so that the pupils will want to be like them 
in their good deeds. Make much of the physical strength 
of these characters since this appeals to the energetic pu- 
pil ; but magnify the moral strength and hold that up 
for imitation. 

(2) These pupils are in the reading period of life. The 
intermediate pupil especially reads with ease, and for these 
the Sunday school library is especially attractive. Build 
up a section of the Sunday school library especially for 
these pupils. Fill it with fine stories by the best writers ; 
have a good collection of easily read biographies, many of 
which are more thrilling than novels and stranger than 
fiction. Who can imagine a more thrilling story than that 
of Judson of Burma, Yates of China, or Livingston of 
Africa. 

3. Using Imagination in Teaching Adults. 

The general principle is: Adults have imagination 
as a result of growth and cultivation in former years. 
Imaginative literature appeals especially to them. Imag- 
inative literature is of course the product of Adult minds. 

Hence the method: Make use of the imagination of the 
Adults in teaching the Bible, for the Bible as no other book 
needs a sane and mature imagination to make its facts real 
and vivid. The Bible narrative is Oriental in its setting; 
Bible characters live through thrilling experiences which 
can be understood only in their local setting. By imagina- 
tion the bare facts of the narrative can be interwoven with 
other legitimate facts relating to local history and geog- 
raphy, and the story can be made to glow with interest. 

By the imagination only can we see the expression on 



IMAGINATION 77 

Joseph's face when his brothers sold him to the Midian- 
itish merchants ; or the joy upon Isaac's face when he saw 
Rebecca riding over the hills toward him ; or the look upon 
the face of Saul of Tarsus as they stoned Stephen. 

It is worth while to let the imagination work out these 
details. They are essential to a true and lasting appre- 
ciation of the facts. Such teaching finds ready response 
in any Adult class. 

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE AND TEST LESSON STUDY. 

1. Define imagination. Upon what is it dependent. 

2. Name and describe the kinds of imagination. 

3. Give two suggestions as to teaching value of imagination. Illus- 
trate. 

4. How may the teacher's imagination be cultivated? 

5. How may the pupil's imagination be cultivated? 

6. Give a good method for utilizing the imagination in teaching 
children, youths, and adults. 

TOPICS FOR FURTHER DISCUSSION. (OPTIONAL.) 

1. What is the relation of imagination to fear? 

2. What is the relation of imagination to play? 

3. What is the relation of imagination to "children's white lies"? 

4. What would be the result, from the teaching standpoint, of crush- 
ing the imagination of a child? 

5. How best deal with an overstimulated imagination? 

6. What is the effect on the creative imagination of telling pupils 
just what to do and how to do it? 

References: Halleck's "Psychology," Chapter VII; Kirkpatrick's 
"Fundamentals," Chapter IX; Stalker's "Christian Psychology," Chap- 
ter V. 



CHAPTER VIII. 
Thought. 

As stated in a previous chapter, thought is the highest 
power of the mind. It gives man his place of authority 
over the inferior animals. By means of it he carries out 
the command given him in Genesis to subdue the earth 
and have dominion over it. Shakespeare in "Hamlet" ex- 
claims regarding man, "How noble in reason!" By this 
power, one nation advances more rapidly than another 
and one man is more capable than another. 

In the realm of religion and morals, though makes pos- 
sible our choices and because of this has a vital bearing 
upon character; character being the sum of our choices. 
Religious truths must be thought through. Possibly no 
realm challenges our powers of thought more than does 
the study of the Bible and its teachings, and in no realm 
are mistaken opinions and judgments more easily possible 
and more perilous. 

I. Definition. 

What is thought ? It is the power of the mind by which 
it observes, compares and classifies the knowledge which 
it gains through such processes as attention and percep- 
tion. 

To think is to notice things, to compare things, to see 
the relations they may bear to each other, then to classify 
them into groups according to their agreements and differ- 
ences. 

Thought is like a good storekeeper who puts like kinds 
together and arranges them in their proper places for con- 
venient handling. Millions of things strike our perceptive 
faculties every day; thought enables us to tie them up in 
bundles of like kinds. We learn to do this quickly, often 
with lightning rapidity, thus keeping our intellectual house 
in order. Without this power, our minds would be like a 
great department store into which a giant had thrown 



THOUGHT 79 

armsful of all sorts of goods, stirred them up with his big 
stick and gone off and left them. 

IL Forms of Thought. 

For practical purposes it will be necessary to study only 
two forms of thought. These are judgment and reason. 

While these forms of thought are treated separately 
for convenience, yet each is not independent of the other 
nor independent of other powers of the mind. Each in- 
volves attention, for we must "mind" the things to be com- 
pared ; each involves memory, for the materials must be 
kept in consciousness in order to be compared. The process 
of thinking involves imagination, for new images are to 
be created as a result of the comparisons made and new 
adjustments will result. 

i. Judgment. 

A judgment is the discovery of a relationship between 
two ideas. Ideas may be like or unlike ; may be far apart 
or near in time or space ; may be related as cause and effect. 

A pupil gets the idea, or concept, man and the idea, or 
concept, sinner. These two are compared and it is seen 
that they agree, so the pupil reaches a judgment — Man 
is a sinner. This statement embodies a positive judgment. 
Comparing the concept man and perfect, one reaches the 
judgment — Man is not perfect. This statement embodies 
a negative judgment. 

Two things are judged as near or far apart in time; 
as, Christmas is a month off. Or, the pencil is in the pocket. 

Two things are related as cause and effect, as when 
a child says, "The fire will burn;" or, "Mud soils my 
dress." 

Thus it is evident that a judgment always results from 
a choice between alternatives at a given time. Also, that 
by means of a judgment, we bring together two ideas that 
would otherwise be isolated and of very little value. Only 
related knowledge is usable. 

To have the concept water and the concept drinking 
without bringing them together would be to die of thirst. 



80 PUPIL LIFE 

Recall the story of the men dying of thirst on a ship in 
the mouth of the Amazon. They signalled to a passing 
ship, hoping to get water from it. The answer came back, 
"Let down your buckets ; you are in the mouth of the 
Aimazon." The thirsty men had the conicept water and the 
concept drinkable; the message caused them, to relate the 
two and apply the result to water over the ship's side. 

The form in which judgments are expressed is a de- 
clarative sentence. Logicians call this form a proposition. 

Mistaken judgments. The power to form judgments of 
the easier and simpler kinds develops in childhood, yet 
children are guilty of many mistaken judgments. They 
have not in their minds all the facts necessary; they lack 
experience and often form judgments upon a single ex- 
perience. They will say, "Mr. Jones is the best man in 
town," just because Mr. Jones gave them ice cream at the 
picnic, paying for it with money he won on the races. Or 
"Black dogs bite children, ,, because one child was bitten 
by a black dog. True judgments must be based upon many 
experiences, as when the physician treats a disease a cer- 
tain way because that way has been successful in many 
cases. 

Adults learn through experience to form correct judg- 
ments about many common things, but are themselves 
guilty of error about more difficult matters. "To err is 
human." We jump at conclusions and trust to luck or 
guess work, many times paying the penalty of sorrow or 
failure. 

Out of the many causes of false judgment, the Sunday 
school teacher will be concerned about those that can be 
helped through good teaching. Note the following: 

(a) Lack of sufficient information. The first thing nec- 
essary in forming judgments is to get the facts. In re- 
ligious matter especially, judgments should not be declared 
until all the witnesses have been examined. Strong state- 
ments about what is right and what is wrong, what is our 
duty to the heathen, to God and to ourselves are often 
modified when facing a simple Bible truth. The Sunday 
school teacher's great work is to help the pupils get the 



THOUGHT 81 

necessary Bible facts so as to enable them to form proper 
judgments about such things. This applies to pupils and 
teachers of all grades of the Sunday school. 

(b) Acceptance of the wrong opinions of others. Here 
lies a great peril. Especially is it true of youths and un- 
taught adults. How sad it is that many church members 
accept the false statements of wicked people who pervert 
the truth and form their judgments about religious and 
moral matters accordingly. "Missions is a failure, " says 
one ; "Man is descended from a monkey," says another ; 
"Temperance legislation is unjust," says another. Such 
statements are generally echoes from wicked lips. Into 
the lives of such the teacher may come with the truth of 
God, upsetting the false and establishing the true. 

(c) Lack of experience. Experience is the great teacher, 
and the tuition is often high. Teachers may warn pupils 
against passing judgment beyond their own fields of knowl- 
edge. Especially in the realm of religion and morals, ex- 
perience is necessary in order to form true judgments. 
Thieves cannot form true judgments about honest men and 
the immoral one cannot rightly estimate the value of Chris- 
tian ideals in society. 

2. Reason- Having studied the process of forming 
judgments, we will now consider reason, which is the last 
and most elaborate of the stages of thought. 

Reason manifests itself in the ability to reach conclu- 
sions, or to "make up our minds" because of certain grounds 
or in the light of certain premises. It involves a compari- 
son of two judgments, or propositions ; from this compari- 
son a conclusion is drawn ; this conclusion is a third judg- 
ment and completes the reasoning process. For example : 
(a) All solids expand with heat, (b) Iron is a solid, (c) 
Iron expands with heat. 

As seen in this example, two judgments are compared 
and a third one formed. As ideas are built up into judg- 
ments, so judgments are built up into reasoning. One 
idea often leads to another, when the mind is not satisfied 
with a single statement or when one judgment does not 
exhaust the material upon which the mind is dwelling — one 

(6) 



82 PUPIL LIFE 

judgment will follow another and form a "train of judg- 
ments," or reason. 

There are three principal forms of reasoning, namely: 
induction, deduction, and analogy. 

(a) Induction. The mind is so constituted that after in- 
vestigating a number of particular and typical cases, it 
reaches the inference that what is true of these cases is 
true of all other cases of that kind. It infers the existence 
of a universal law covering all members of that class. As 
for example : David sinned ; he repented ; God forgave him. 
Jonah sinned ; he repented ; God forgave him. Peter sinned ; 
he repented; God forgave him. Hence, if a man sin and 
repent, God will forgive him. 

Induction is an upward movement of thought from par- 
ticular instances to general truths. It first illustrates, then 
states the principle involved. The conclusion reached is 
larger than the premises. 

The principle upon which induction proceeds is that 
what is true of some members of a class is true of all mem- 
bers of that class. There is, of course, danger that some- 
times the use of this principle will result in mistakes which 
will have to be corrected by observation of the particular 
case. Yet this process is a great time saver. We cannot 
stop to test every new case. If so, we would have to try 
every fire to see if it would burn, every piece of mud to 
see if it would soil the child's dress ; the doctors would 
never be certain about their medicines having the accus- 
tomed effect. The power of inductive reasoning frees us 
from these necessities and enables us to travel with seven- 
league boots among the facts of life. 

The teaching value of induction is in the fact that it 
leads to new knowledge, it defines, it establishes rules and 
principles. As when Socrates, by induction, concluded that 
knowledge is virtue, or when the scientists concluded, after 
observing many mammals, that mammals are vertebrates. 

It should be used constantly in teaching, especially in 
the early years of the pupil's life, as the reasoning of that 
period must necessarily be inductive ; the mind is then 
forming general conclusions from specific instances. 



THOUGHT 83 

(b) Deduction. This form of reasoning starts with a 
general statement or inference which has been previously 
established, then applies the inference to any new specimen 
that may belong to the class. Deduction starts with the 
general principles provided by induction. Deduction takes 
these principles without questioning their truth and starts 
with them as major premises. 

Deduction states the principle, then illustrates it. For 
example : If a man sin and repent, God will forgive him. 
David sinned and repented. Therefore, God forgave him. 

Deduction carries certainty with its conclusions — if the 
premises are true. It is effective in arguments and in set- 
ling doubts. 

(c) Analogy. This form of reasoning is based upon the 
likeness one thing bears to another. We reason that what 
is true of one of two similar things is true of the other. 
The conclusion is satisfactory if the analogy is true. To 
say that America is as rich as England and should have 
as good roads, would seem fair enough upon the face of 
it ; but reflection would show that America's size is many 
times that of England's, hence would greatly affect the 
matter of road-making. 

Teaching by analogy is most effective. It appeals to the 
imagination as well as to the reason, hence has the nature 
of picture-making and is pleasing. It is pleasing to think 
of God's love as being like a mother's love, and Jesus' care 
for His own as being like the care of the shepherd for 
the sheep. It is utilizing the principle of apperception, pre- 
viously discussed. "Let me see if I can illustrate," or "It 
is like this," says the teacher or preacher, and all give 
attention. The illustration both attracts attention and 
makes clear the truth to be learned. 

Jesus, the Great Teacher, taught in parables and we re- 
member his parables possibly better than any other of his 
sayings. He said, "I am the good shepherd," "I am the 
water of life," "I am the bread of life," "I am the true vine 
and ye are the branches." With each of these statements 
his hearers saw new relations between Himself and them- 
selves. 



84 PUPIL LIFE 

III. Teaching Value. 

As indicated before in this chapter, the highest value 
must be put upon thought, since it is man's highest mental 
endowment. All education is directed towards the develop- 
ment of this power and must provide both the material 
to be used in the exercise of thought, and provide exercise 
in actual thinking. A course in English, in college, does 
just this — provides English material and necessitates the 
practice of thinking in English. So with a course in Bible 
in Sunday school or in a Christian college. 

Cicero said, "To think is to live!'' While we may not 
agree with that statement unless somewhat qualified — yet 
it shows the high value that was early placed upon man's 
ability to think. 

(a) Thinking means progress in material things. Ani- 
mals and birds, by instinct, have reared their young and 
cared for them in the same way throughout all the years. 
Man changes his mode of living to suit conditions of neces- 
sity or convenience. By his power of thought, he harnesses 
the forces of nature and saves his own strength. He now 
travels without tiring himself or even his horses. He sends 
messages by invisible, untiring messengers. All the prog- 
ress of the present era results from man's ability to think 
— to see new relations and make new combinations. In 
this sense it may be said that civilization is the product of 
thought. It has been said that "civilization is but another 
term for thinking." 

Illustrating the lack of progressive thinking, the old 
Chinese system of education was largely memory work of 
selections from past writers. As a result, for thousands of 
years the nation stood still. They did not by this process 
of education develop their reflective powers ; they did not 
assimilate and re-combine the knowledge gained through 
the senses and the power of memory. They saw no new 
relations. Memory cannot do the work of the reflective 
powers. 

Seeming relation means progress. Unrelated materials 
are worthless. Watts saw a new relation between steam 
and wheels. Morse saw a new relation between electric- 



THOUGHT 85 

ity, wires and messages ; Bell saw a still newer one. Edison 
saw a relation between electricity and street cars, light- 
ing apparatus and music boxes. Rockefeller's men saw 
new relations between petroleum and light, heat and pow- 
er. So the world moves on. 

(b) Thinking means progress in spiritual things. The 
great truths of the Bible are given us to be known, ac- 
cepted and lived out. God made our minds ; He made the 
Book ; He made our minds to receive the Book and the 
Book to fit into our minds. In a measure we can "think 
Thy thoughts after Thee, O God." He bids his people 
"Come, let us reason together." The commonest term for 
sin is "folly" or "unreason." His prophet laments the fact 
that "My people do not know ; Israel doth not consider." 

Each one has the right to read the Bible for himself, 
to get the best available helps upon its meaning, to un- 
derstand it for himself and to live according to its teach- 
ings. No "church" or state has the right to force any one 
to believe a certain set of doctrines. With religious liberty 
comes the right to read the open Bible, to interpret it 
according to the best light that can be gotten upon it, 
subject only to the guidance of the Holy Spirit and to an 
enlightened conscience. 

Hence the Sunday school teacher must lead the pupils 
to know and believe for themselves. In the hand of our 
teachers is largely the possibility of bringing on a gen- 
eration that will know the fundamental truths of the Bible 
and be proof against heresies and false leaders. Teachers 
should welcome the question "Why?" and be ready to 
answer "Because" — thus leading the pupils into an intelli- 
gent and reasonable faith. Our church life involves teach- 
ing and training, both of which appeal to the ability of 
our people to think. 

(c) Thinking helps in clearing up doubts. 

The only one who never doubted is the one who never 
thought. Thinking involves doubting; that which is not 
clear to the mind. 

Young people in our Sunday schools are not infidels; 



86 PUPIL LIFE 

they are not often even wicked doubters — but rather 
searchers after truths. Belief and unbelief are the fixed 
points ; doubt is half way between. Inquiring pupils may 
be given the truth of God and be led back to belief even 
more firmly fixed in the truth than before. 

Teachers of pupils in the teens, especially, will do best 
to respect their pupils' ability to think and their desire 
for proof. It is best not to treat them as infidels, and to 
rob their doubts of any seeming wickedness and treat it 
as a natural experience during the years when reason is 
developing. Cease saying "Believe this because I say so," 
and begin saying "Do you not think so?" Pupils in the 
reasoning period resent the former, but will respond to 
the latter. Patience and sympathy with them are like the 
south wind that melts away difficulties ; harshness and curt 
answers are like the north wind that makes the iceberg 
freeze the harder. 

(d) Right thinking means right character building. 

Right think has great value because of its relation to 
character-building. Right thinking leads to right living; 
and right living, to right character building. Right living 
is impossible without right thinking. 

Wrong thinking cannot lead to right acting. "As a man 
thinketh in his heart, so is he." The teacher's aim should 
be to lead pupils to get the right materials with which 
to think, to think rightly about these materials ; and to 
rightly value holy things. For only as pupils think rightly 
will they do rightly. 

IV. How to Cultivate the Power of Thought. 

Like other mental processes, the power of thought is 
not born full grown. It can be cultivated. 

In younger pupils, there is some ability to think; but 
their judgments are often inaccurate. This is because of 
the pupil's lack of experience, or lack of clear concepts, 
or because of willingness to accept the mistaken judgments 
of others rather than go to the trouble to think for him- 
self. 

(a) Before the age of twelve, the teacher's chief work 



THOUGHT 87 

is to store the memory with materials that may later on 
be of service in the thought process. Before twelve is not 
properly the reasoning period. Parents and teachers should 
not expect thoughtfulness in any marked degree in these 
years. Before twelve is the period of absorption; nature 
did not make a mistake in giving perception and memory 
the foremost places in youth. After twelve is the period 
of adjustment ; then association of ideas gives much pleas- 
ure, brain cells are connected up and relations between 
facts are discovered. 

As life advances reason develops more and more ; even 
when memory is failing the reason is often at its height. 
It is one of the last powers to be lost. 

(b) Connect Bible truths with the pupil's interests. 

If interested, pupils cannot help thinking about a truth. 
Through the proper use of the point of contact and analogy 
the pupil's interest may be aroused, his thinking stimu- 
lated and directed towards a given lesson. First interest, 
then attention, then thinking is the teacher's rule in deal- 
ing with any class in the Sunday school. 

(c) Use the question and answer method. 

The lecture method is chiefly a pouring-in process. 
Unless most skilfully done, it is likely to miss the inter- 
ests of the average Sunday school class, and to paralyze 
their thinking. 

Ask the question "Who was David's best friend?" and 
the pupil's mind at once searches its materials for the an- 
swer ; if the answer can be given, the mind is alert for a 
new truth concerning David and his friend; if the mind 
cannot discover the answer, it is hungry for the needed 
truth. 

The question reveals to the teacher the pupil's progress 
in thinking. When the answers come quickly, the teacher 
leads on rapidly to another truth ; when they come slowly, 
the teacher must wait, give time, add a hint or a truth 
to aid the pupil's thinking. Which would be better, a lec- 
ture on the Prodigal Son, or thirty minutes spent in stim- 
ulating a class to answer the question, "In just what did 



88 PUPIL LIFE 

the Prodigal's sin consist?" or "Of the twelve things said 
about the Prodigal, how many show a sin on his part?" 

(d) Making definitions and analyses. 

In all teaching, and especially in Bible teaching, one 
of the most valuable agencies for the development of 
thought is the making of definitions. A good definition 
saves confusion in thinking. Many debates are settled when 
the matter in question is properly defined. 

Time is well spent in questioning the pupils as to the 
meaning of Bible words and phrases and in defining them 
in everyday language. Much of the Bible must be trans- 
lated out of the Oriental setting and language into our 
everyday terms of thought before it can be rightly under- 
stood. 

The average churchgoer doubtless misses the preach- 
er's thought most of all because he does not understand 
the theological terms the preacher uses. The listener 
thinks in everyday terms rather than in theological. 

Making an analysis of the lesson is an effective train- 
ing in thinking the lesson through. If pupils are above the 
age of twelve, their teacher may well lead them to make 
for each lesson two analyses ; one of the facts of the les- 
son, and one of the truths that shine out through these 
facts. The different points of the analyses should be based 
upon definite verses or sections of the scripture text. 

V. Summary and Suggested Methods. 

i. Cultivating the Power of Thought in Children, or Be- 
ginners and Primaries. 

The general principle is this: In a limited way children 
think, but they are not yet in the reasoning period, which 
is usually designated as the time of life after the age of 
twelve. 

The thinking of children is usually in the formation of 
judgments, many of which are incorrect because of lack 
of experience, or of improper concepts, or of insufficient in- 
formation upon the subject in hand. 

Hence the method: The teacher should constantly at- 



THOUGHT 89 

tempt to lead children to form clear concepts, to see the 
true relations between these concepts and to express these 
relations in correct judgments. Golden Texts and memory 
gems comprise such teaching. Such texts as "God is love" 
and "Be ye kind one to another" are to be taught and their 
meaning developed and made clear by stories and analogies. 
Much of the teaching time should be given to memory 
work that supplies the materials for thought in later years. 

2. Cultivating the Power of Thought in Youths, or Juniors 

and Intermediates. 

The general principle is this: These pupils are in the 
period of the "dawning of reason." They can see relations. 
The power of association of ideas is asserting itself in their 
lives. 

Hence the method: (1) Teach by the question and an- 
swer process, which stirs the mind to discover relations. 
Do not simply pour in information. Telling is not neces- 
sarily teaching. Insist upon the pupil's thinking through 
the facts that he already has. When a truth is gotten, lead 
the pupils to relate it to kindred truths by thinking of its 
relation to these kindred truths. Thus tie up new truths 
in bundles with old truths of a kindred nature. 

(2) Encourage the pupils to search for analogies. 
Spiritual things are likened in the Bible to every-day 
things. So, analogies between the spiritual and the natural 
are easily found. A question often involves the search for 
an analogy, as: "Why is life like a pilgrimage?" or, "In 
what way is the Holy Spirit like electricity?" 

(3) The study of biography should be used to train 
the pupils above twelve to think. Teachers should stimu- 
late these pupils to think about the life — not simply to get 
the facts of the story. Appeal constantly to the pupil's 
opinion as to the deeds done and their consequences ; as, 
"Does sin always lead to sorrow, as in David's case?" or, 
"Did obedience lead to blessing in Jeremiah's case?" 

3. Cultivating the Power of Thought in Seniors and Adults. 

The general principle is this: These pupils are in the 
time of life when they delight most of all to see relations, 



go PUPIL LIFE 

search for and discover connections, and make deductions. 
They delight in comparing likes and opposites ; their minds 
are easily stimulated to reflection. 

Hence the method: Whatever may be the series of les- 
sons, put the class to their best to discover the truths em- 
bedded in the facts. Do not be satisfied with a mere re- 
hearsal of facts. Dig deeper. When the truths are discov- 
ered, relate them to life. For example, the conditions under 
which Paul labored in Corinth and the experiences of those 
church members may be compared with conditions of 
Christian work and church life in our modern cities. Study 
the Sermon on the Mount in the light of the question, "Can 
any business man today live by it and prosper?" 

Put the class on duty for discussion, investigation a.ud 
for getting illustrative material. One teacher of a class 
of young ladies arranged a list of books for parallel read- 
ing during a certain quarter, and led the class to read the 
books, make notes on them, and write essays upon them. 
In these essays the application of the Sunday school les- 
sons was indicated. These papers were read to the school 
as a feature of the opening exercises. 

It will be readily seen that such a plan is easy to work 
when the books read are, for example, missionary or biog- 
raphy and the Sunday school lessons are in Acts. It would 
be interesting to compare the "Inside of the Cup" with the 
work of Jesus in winning men and women, as told in John's 
gospel. 



QUESTIONS TO GUIDE AND TEST LESSON STUDY. 

1. What is thought? Unto what may it be likened? 

2. Give the two forms of thought and illustrate each. 

3. Name three causes of false judgments. 

4. Name the three principle forms of reasoning and illustrate each. 

5. Make four suggestions as to the teaching value of thought. 

6. How may the pupil's power of thought be cultivated? 

7. Give a method of cultivating the thinking of children, youths, and 
adults. 

TOPICS FOR FURTHER DISCUSSION. (OPTIONAL.) 

1. What is the relation between faith and reason? 

2. When does a teacher give a pupil too much help? 

3. Of what value is criticism in stimulating thought? 

4. Is general novel reading helpful to thought? Can it be made 
helpful? 

5. How best answer children's questions, such as, "Who made God ? 



THOUGHT 91 

6. How best preserve the youth's respect for the judgment of his 
elders, while developing his powers of independent judgment? 

References: Halleck's "Psychology," Chapters VIII and IX; Stalker's 
''Christian Psychology," Chapter VII; James' "Talks to Teachers," Chap- 
ter XXII. 

At this point in these studies the student will pass from 
the consideration of topics dealing with the functions of 
the intellect to the consideration of the feelings and the will. 



CHAPTER IX. 
The Feelings. 

In ordinary language, the word "feelings" covers a wide 
range. It was used in a previous chapter in connection 
with common sensations, or those states of the body which 
are brought into consciousness as a result of our contact 
with the world about us. In this chapter, feelings in that 
sense will not be considered; but rather, feelings in the 
sense in which we use the word when referring to love, 
hate, joy, sorrow, hope, pride and such like. 

I. Definition. 

By feelings we mean the state of mind bringing us either 
pleasure or pain; the frame of mind is either pleasant or 
unpleasant and, for the moment, we are dominated by it. 
Some think there are states of mind that are absolutely 
neutral, neither agreeable nor disagreeable. We pass such 
possibilities by as having little value for the Sunday school 
teacher since they likely incite to no action and will never 
become powerful motive factors in the lives of the pu- 
pils. We will consider feelings as "fountains of conduct" 
back of which lie one or the other of elements : pleasure 
and pain. These two are the signals of danger or welfare; 
to avoid the one and gain the other are the constant mo- 
tives of action. 

II. Kinds of Feelings. 

Of the many kinds of feelings that might be discussed, 
there are four which are especially helpful and necessary 
for the Sunday school teacher to consider. 

i. The Egoistic Feelings. Egoistic feelings are those 
that one has about oneself ; or, "self-feelings." They in- 
clude, among other things, the desire for approbation and 
the various forms of self-esteem. Such feelings are among 
the earliest to be developed, hence they are noticed in 
the lives of children. Later, they develop into rivalry, love 
of power, and emulation of others. 



THE FEELINGS 93 

To the Sunday school teacher, the egoistic feelings are 
important because they furnish the basis of appeal to the 
pupil for proper self-regard and self-improvement. Upon 
this is founded the pupil's appreciation of certificates of 
recognition and of promotion day honors. The teacher of 
younger pupils may foster this feeling by frankly compli- 
menting the pupil who does well in lesson study and in 
other points of excellence. As the pupils grow older, this 
feeling may be used as a basis for stirring them to friend- 
ly rivalry in lesson study and in class efficiency. 

The recognition of the egoistic feelings has brought 
about the present-day omission of prizes of intrinsic value 
as awards. Evidently it is not fair to give a prize to one 
hard-working contestant only ; for example, to the one who 
learns the largest number of Scripture verses. The pupil 
who comes next highest in this matter should be rewarded 
according to his attainments. The better plan is to give 
an award, such as a certificate of honor, to each one who 
attains a certain standard. This takes care of the love 
of approbation in each pupil. No feelings are hurt, and 
all are encouraged to try next time. 

The disposition to seek praise is natural with children, 
and praise is an incentive to do right. Happily, our Sun- 
day schools are now utilizing recognitions and honor cer- 
tificates which give praise to all who deserve it. 

2. The Altruistic Feelings. These are feelings which 
are directed toward others in a favorable way, or the "oth- 
ers-feeling." These feelings include love, respect and sym- 
pathy for others. Such feelings develop during the period 
of youth and may be greatly increased by proper teach- 
ing, especially regarding missions and benevolences. The 
Golden Rule and all kindred teachings are altruistic. The 
Sunday school teacher's work is chiefly with such feelings, 
especially if the pupils are Christians, and much thought 
should be given to directing and making these feelings 
practical in the life. 

In order to develop altruistic feelings, two things are 
necessary: First, a knowledge of the needs of those whom 
we can help; second, an imagination to make this knowl- 



94 PUPIL LIFE 

edge vivid and real to the mind . You cannot "put your- 
self in the other fellow's place" without knowing his con- 
dition and vivifying it by imagination. No man gives much 
to missions and benevolences w r ho does not know the facts 
about the needs and who does not see in his imagination 
the effect of these needs. The altruistic feelings starve 
without knowledge. Many a "globe trotter" who was in- 
different to missionary work has become an ardent sup- 
porter of missions because of what he saw in heathen lands. 
A worker was once telling about a twelve-year-old boy 
in Nazareth who wanted a Christian education. Pictures 
of this boy were shown and some stories of his home life 
were told. At the close of the service, a young lady hand- 
ed the speaker a liberal contribution. When asked why 
she gave so much she said, "I was so interested in what 
was said about that boy; I felt I would like to help him 
get an education ; so I decided to give this to that purpose 
instead of spending it for another purpose, as I had in- 
tended." Note the process which led to her giving: She 
heard the facts and knew ; she felt sympathy ; then her 
will moved her to give the money. 

3. Moral Feelings. Moral feelings are those which men 
have for their fellow men as regards right living or right 
conduct toward others. It is the working out of the motto, 
"Love thy neighbor as thyself." Indications of it are seen 
in man's regard for duty and for moral obligations ; in his 
feelings of "oughtness" which a right conscience keeps 
alive. 

Moral feelings develop in their fullness in adult life 
and are the outcome of Christian teaching and experience. 
Men who are not Christians may claim to be moral but 
their morality is shallow, as true morality must be founded 
upon Christianity; without this, the motive is lacking in 
strength. 

4. Spiritual Feelings. Spiritual feelings are those 
which are the result of thought about our relations with 
God. The highest form of spiritual feeling is comprehended 
in love to God, for man is commanded to love God with 
all his mind, heart, soul and strength. 



THE FEELINGS 95 

Such feelings as these are nourished by Bible truths 
and a life of prayer ; spiritual feelings must also find ex- 
ercise in worship and Christian work. If these feelings 
are to move our wills, they must be constantly guarded 
and nourished. 

Each session of the Sunday school should give nourish- 
ment to the spiritual feelings, and should be planned so 
as to meet the needs of children and adults. One of the 
signs of better times is the attendance of adults upon the 
Sunday school. Adults bless the Sunday school with their 
presence, and get a blessing through worship and study 
of the Bible; this prepares them in heart and mind for 
proper attendance upon preaching service with its wor- 
ship and appeal for service at their hands. 

III. The Teaching Value of the Feelings. 

The great importance of the feelings cannot be over- 
estimated. They are important (1) because of their re- 
lation to knowldge. Things about us have value for us 
only as they affect our feelings. What fails to touch our 
feelings of pleasure or pain at some point, has no interest 
for us and we do not notice it. Many a fact goes in at 
one ear and out at the other, but the effect of the news 
of the Galveston flood or of the death of McKinley, and 
such like events, never passes away. Our feelings were 
too deeply stirred. 

The feelings are important (2) because of their rela- 
tion to conduct. Fire a soul with a burning desire to ac- 
complish something, and the chief work is done. The 
intellect will devise the method of accomplishment. The 
Sunday school pupil who has a desire to accomplish worth- 
while things in life, a desire to be efficient in at least one 
line of service, a longing to make his life genuinely useful 
— will not fail in doing something of consequence. 

Of the two suggestions given above, the latter most 
concerns the Sunday school teacher, for the teacher's aim 
should be to move the will to action. Without such action, 
no right habits can be formed and character development 
is impossible. The feelings are the power behind the will. 



96 PUPIL LIFE 

When the feelings are aroused people do things. For love, 
duty, pride, or loyalty, people will sacrifice and even dare 
to die. Fear of consequences many times drives people to 
do even disagreeable things. Facts stir. No feelings can 
be aroused over a fact or a condition until we know about it. 

The order of development is this : We know clearly ; 
we feel keenly; we act promptly. Truth stirs the feel- 
ings ; the feelings stir the will ; the will produces action ; 
action, oft repeated, results in habit; habit makes char- 
acter; and character determines destiny. 

i. The Feelings as "Fountains of Conduct." They are 
basal and fundamental in life, giving impetus to life's 
undertakings. As compared with the intellect, feel- 
ings are primary in importance, and the intellect, second- 
ary. For example, .feelings of love, anger, fear, and re- 
venge, and such like, move to action and produce results. 
It is the business of the intellect to devise ways and means 
of satisfying the soul's longings. William Cary studied the 
map of the heathen world while pegging shoes for a liv- 
ing; his soul became so stirred with the missionary spirit 
that he could not stay at home ; he organized a society 
to "hold the rope while he went down into the dark well." 
His feelings moved him to go as a missionary, and his 
intellect devised the plan which made his going possible. 

Why do the feelings move the will? A simple expla- 
nation is this : When the feelings are stirred by truth, a 
deep impression is made and impression seeks expression. 
The deeper the emotion, the more urgent the desire for 
expression. A man violently angry will likely smash up 
something; a person who loves deeply will give expression 
to it by doing some beautiful deed. Mary knew the Mas- 
ter ; she loved Him because of the blessing she had received 
from Him ; hence she anointed Him with the box of pre- 
cious ointment. Feeling is a power-house; the fuel that 
generates the power is information. 

2. The Imagination is a Factor in stirring the feel- 
ings. Imagination sets fire to the fuel that generates the 
power; the imagination breaks up abstract and general 
notions into individual and concrete pictures, thus stirring 



THE FEELINGS 97 

the feelings of the soul. The indefinite does not stir; the 
vivid does. The imagination makes facts vivid. 

There is a kind of cold, colorless intellectuality that 
does not move the mind to action because it does not 
stir the feelings. People know, but do not do. Why? 
Clearly because the knowledge is unrelated in their minds 
to definite ends. They do not "picture forth" the situation 
about which they know. A truth must be known in fairly 
thorough way, and then to get action as a result of know- 
ing it, it must be related by imagination to definite ends. 
Cary learned the facts about heathen lands and evidently 
his imagination vivified them till he saw the effects. Peter 
knew he was denying his Lord, but his soul was not stirred 
by feelings of remorse until he saw the look of sorrow 
upon the Savior's face ; then "he went out and wept bit- 
terly." The moving story we read, or the address we hear, 
is one that gives the facts in such a way as to fire the 
feelings by a concrete case which appeals to the imagina- 
tion. The illustration does the work. 

This is why the imagination lies so close to the feeling- 
life. Hence the poor results of teaching in an abstract 
and general way when a vivid word picture can be used 
to stir the imagination and arouse the feelings and will 
to nobler actions. 

If the teacher can suggest a plan by which the class 
can accomplish some service which they are urged to do, 
the pupil's imagination will seize upon the plan, picture 
out the process and the outcome, and arouse feelings of 
pleasure and anticipation. These feelings will usually move 
the pupil's will to act. 

As an illustration, recall the case of Daniel and his 
refusal to eat the meat of the king's table. First, he knew 
the effects upon the minds and bodies of students of wines 
and highly seasoned meats; second, he felt the need of es- 
caping these effects; third, hie willed or resolved not to 
eat the king's meat. Then, in his imagination, he pictured 
out a plan whereby he might carry out his resolution So 
he asked the king's steward to try him and his friends 
on simple foods for a given number of days, and then 

<7) 



9 g PUPIL LIFE 

to compare them with the young men who sat at the 
king's table. Thus he succeeded in carrying out the line 
of action he had willed to do. 

Many times the Sunday school teacher, after stirring 
the feelings of the class to show kindness, must suggest 
the plan by which they can help the orphans, or the mis- 
sionaries, or someone in need. If the point of appeal is 
a public profession of Christ, the teacher may often see 
the parent of the pupil and obviate any difficulties that 
might lie in the pupil's way. 

In the light of the above, the teacher should seek to 
accomplish three things: (i) To communicate Bible knowl- 
edge about right living, Christian service and duty, so that 
the mental powers of the pupil will seize upon it and 
assindlate it (2) To illustrate and apply this knowledge 
to the point where emotions are aroused and the pupils 
feel that they should do and be what is taught. (3) To 
uie the pupL to do the thing they feel that they ought 
to do Sometimes the teacher must suggest methods by 
which they may carry out their desires. 

IV. How to Cultivate the Feelings. 

1 The Teacher's Example. The teacher must himself 
cultivate the kind of feelings he wishes the pupils to have. 
Feelmgs are contagious. Seek to create the atmosphere 
which you most desire in your class. "Count your bless- 
ffigs," be cheerful, stand erect, and exert yoursel ; body 
and mind will act together, and each reacts upon therthen 
The class will respond because they ^™^J™££§ 
the feelings you wish them to have. Effort on the part ot 
the teacher will stimulate the pupil. 

Happy is the teacher who can create a happy and rev- 
erent atLsphere in the class. The silent influence of 
e environm™nt P is most powerful in the .realms of feeling 
Hence have decorations upon the walls such as to sum 
3aS the right thoughts and. the .feeling; .Avoid he 
gloomy and the depressing; strive for the ^nght ana the 
joyous Fortunate is the teacher whose pupils can say, 
"/always feel better when I get into that class. 



THE FEELINGS 99 

2. Indirection. Proceed upon the principle of indirec- 
tion. It is often easier to stir the proper feelings by in- 
direct means than by direct. If reverence is the feeling the 
teacher desires the class to have, perhaps the poorest way 
to get it is to say, "Now, be reverent." The better way is 
for the teacher to set the example — be careful of his be- 
havior in prayer and song, and scripture reading, speak 
reverently of the Sabbath day and its purposes, and thus 
"create an atmosphere. " The fundamental truth here is 
that feelings cannot be produced by urging the pupil to 
have them, but only by presenting ideas. 

If the class, or a pupil, has developed certain feelings 
which the teacher wishes to repress, this can be done by 
indirection ; that is, divert attention from that which causes 
the feelings, and direct attention to ideas which will pro- 
duce the opposite feeing. For example, timid pupils can 
be made to forget their timidity by the charm of a story 
or the pleasure of a march and song. 

3. Use the Story. Perhaps nothing so stirs the feel- 
ings as a well-told story. There are many illustrations in 
the Bible showing that through the power of a story great 
decisions were made and great things came to pass. David 
was allowed, through the power of a story of killing a 
lion and a bear, to take his chance at slaying the giant. 
The prophet Nathan conquered the proud king David by 
the story of the little twe lamb. 

Why is a story powerful ? Logic appeals to the reason ; 
pathos appeals to the emotions ; the commandments are 
addressed to the will; but the story contains them all — 
logic, pathos, and commandment at least by inference and, 
indirection. 

Especially is this true of the mirror story; that is the 
story in which the pupil sees himself as the chief character. 

A mother told the story of the lost sheep to her little 
son, who had the habit of running away. She emphasized 
the hole in the fence through which the lost sheep escaped. 
When she was done, her son said, "I am not going to run 
away any more, but I wish you would ask papa to stop 
up that hole in the fence." 



ioo PUPIL LIFE 

Thus the story teaches, by indirection. No mention 
need be made of any particular pupil, yet the mirror story 
fits the case and does its work. The pupil, in imagination, 
becomes the chief character of the story and to all prac- 
tical purposes feels what the story represents as happen- 
ing to its chief character. 

4. Use Repression and Stimulation as is- needed. In the 
same class, there will often be found pupils of opposite 
natures and feelings. Some are of the logical or reason- 
ing type and are not demonstrative ; they may even resent 
a show of feeling by others. Others are of the impulsive 
or emotional type, and are easily swept away by their 
feelings. Neither type is wholly desirable. The first class 
should be led to read and think along lines that will de- 
velop a response to touches of pure sentiment and emo- 
tion. The others should be led to repress the show of 
emotion, and to engage in lines of practical service. The 
type of pupil that "fires up quickly but never turns a 
wheel" is marked by weakness. When the feelings are 
stirred the will should move towards some worthy aim or 
resolution. 

The Sunday school teacher's work with such pupils as 
mentioned above can best be done between classes and 
with the individuals. Such pupils need a friend and a con- 
fidant; these manifestations come chiefly in the adolescent 
period, which is the lonesome period, and many times the 
Sunday school teacher can get closer to the pupil than 
can anyone else. 

V. Summary and Suggested Methods. 

1. The Feelings of Children, or the Beginners and Pri- 
maries. 

The general principle is this : Children are slaves to their 
feelings, while they last. Their feelings are fleeting. Sun- 
shine and tears are often seen in the same moment. 

Hence the method: The Sunday school teacher should 
seek, in every way possible, to arouse feelings of gener- 
osity, love for others, reverence and respcet for the Bible, 
for the Lord's house, and the Lord's day. By songs, pray- 



THE FEELINGS 101 

ers, Bible stories, suggesting friendly deeds, and by the 
development possible in the general exercises, the teach- 
ers accomplish this. In every right way nobler, higher 
feelings should be stirred so that the acts prompted by 
them may lead to habits that need not to be broken. 

2. The Feelings of Youths, or Juniors and Intermedi- 
ates. 

The general principle is this : In this period the feel- 
ings are being brought more and more under the control 
of reason and will. Each year the pupil gathers informa- 
tion and develops the ability to weigh evidence and decide 
for himself. 

What then stirs the feelings of the youth? Facts; deeds 
of heroism, self-sacrifice, noble living of all kinds when 
told of real men and women. Such truths develop the al- 
truistic feelings, which make their beginnings in the period 
of youth. 

Hence the method: Utilize Bible biography. No story 
book compares with the Bible in its heroes and stirring 
deeds. Would you stir feelings of courage? Tell of the 
brave deeds of David. Would you stir feelings of heroism? 
In a score of instances, Paul's experiences can be used. 
Would you arouse admiration for manly living? The char- 
acter of the Matchless Man is convincing and winsome. 
If your pupils are girls, tell of Vashtai to impress virtue ; 
of Salome to impress the consequences of vice ; of Ruth 
to impress the beauty of faith and faithfulness ; of Dorcas 
to impress the lesson of practical deeds ; and of Lydia to 
teach the lesson of consecration of one's means to the 
furtherance of the gospel. 

3. The Feelings of Adults. 

The general principle is: Adults have feelings, and they 
can be aroused, but not by a causal appeal to them. There 
is one pathway leading into the stronghold where they 
are guarded; that pathway is the appeal to the intellect. 
Break down prejudice and indifference by facts and logical 
conclusions; illustrate the -facts by incidents which drive 
the truth home, thus stirring the feelings to the point 



102 PUPIL LIFE 

of subduing the stubborn will and sweeping it out into 
action. 

Hence the method: Utilize the knowledge that the pu- 
pils already have, bringing it to bear upon the lesson, 
adding some points to it so as to hold interest and match- 
ing the truth with an illustration out of their experience, 
appealing to the will to do the right thing. When once 
Adults are won by argument and appeal, they become 
staunch supporters of the truth. It is worth while to over- 
come prejudices of capable men and women and finally 
win them to your faith and activities. 

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE AND TEST LESSON STUDY. 

1. Define feelings. 

2. Name and describe the kinds of feelings. 

3. Show how the feelings are fountains of conduct. 

4. Illustrate the imagination as a factor in stirring the feelings. 

5. Suggest three ways of cultivating the feelings. 

6. Suggest a good method for dealing with the feelings of children, 
youths, and adults. 

TOPICS FOR FURTHER DISCUSSION. (OPTIONAL.) 

1. Contrast the feelings of children, youths and adults as to inten- 
sity; as to duration; as to reflex influences. 

2. In what degree does the will and the reason influence feelings? 

3. Discuss the influence of the story upon the feelings. Illustrate. 
Why is it true? With what effect did Jesus use this plan? 

4. What bearing has the feelings upon evangelism? In what depart- 
ments most of all? How far should it be stressed? 

5. Discuss the contagion of emotions, as the spreading of fear in an 
army, of laughter in a crowd, of weeping. Does the size of the crowd 
have any influence? Do certain families or communities develop cer- 
tain emotional tones? Why? 

References: Halleck's "Psychology," Chapters, X, XI; Stalker's 
/'Christian Psychology," Chapter VIII; Angell's "Psychology," Chapters 
13, 14; James' "Psychology," Vol. II, Chapter 25. 



CHAPTER X. 

The Will. 

When we think of ourselves, at any given time, it is 
always as doing something. Indeed, if we stop to con- 
sider any particular state of mind that we may be in, we 
find ourselves perceiving or knowing something, feeling 
one way or another about it, and then doing something 
about it. Sometimes the thinking is most prominent, again 
the feeling is prominent, and again the doing is prominent 
— yet all three are present. Thus, knowing, feeling and 
willing, are the three great functions of the self, or ego. 
The latter, or willing, always concerns itself with action. 
We are never without the activity of the will in the broad- 
est sense of the term. 

I. Definition. 

"The will is the determining and directing power of 
the mind, involving all the conscious forces of the mind." 

A determining and directing power suggests an execu- 
tive ; such the will is. As a king sits upon his throna and 
issues his imperial orders for servants to carry out, so the 
will reigns in the "clay cottage/' seeing to it that certain 
things are done and that certain other things are not done. 
However, the will is not an executive distinguishable from 
the mind and issuing orders to the mind ; but is simply 
the mind or soul deciding and executing its decisions. Thus 
the will concerns itself with action; it is the motor power. 
If the feelings are the power-house, the will is the current 
turned on and moving things. It is the dynamic force of 
the ego in action. Whenever there is in feeling a "motor 
element ,, which tends to go out in action, that element is 
will. 

i. The Nature of Will. We speak of strong and weak 
wills and of breaking a child's will as if will was some- 
thing that could be handled. This of course is not true. 
The will is a function to be developed just as is memory 
or imagination. The child's will is weak. Why? Because 



104 PUPIL LIFE 

it lacks experience; it lacks the power to deliberate be- 
tween good and bad results of his own actions. For ex- 
ample, the child will beg for a razor and cry if denied 
it; but in manhood, the knowledge and experience of the 
use and dangers of a razor all enter into the will and 
strengthen it. Adults have strong wills because they have 
learned, through experience, what they may do with pleas- 
ure and profit, and what will bring harmful results. 

(i) Desire leads to acts of the will. The exercise of 
the will presupposes an intense desire or longing to secure 
something agreeable, or to avoid something disagreeable. 
The desire may be on a very low or very high plane, and 
it indicates a definite idea of the end in view. 

The object desired is many times actually seen, as when 
a child looks at a new toy and begs for it; or the object 
may be brought to mind out of previous knowledge by 
memory and vivified by imagination, as when a pupil re- 
members the inspiring service on promotion day and de- 
sires to share that distinction on the next occasion. 

(2) Desire is affected by knowledge, being either in- 
creased or decreased by it. Knowledge of the joys of a 
Christian life will enhance the desire for it. Where there 
is no knowledge there can be no desire ; where there is 
knowledge, desire is strengthened and a path for the will 
is pointed out. 

In this lies the point of value for the Sunday school 
teacher, namely: to so teach the pupils and live before 
them as to kindle noble and righteous desires and to re- 
strain wrong desires. The teacher may well give thought 
to methods of training the pupils in yielding to the high- 
er and nobler, rather than the lower. 

In this process, two methods may be of use (1) Force- 
ful illustrations from the lives of noble characters. As, 
David's example when he said, "I would rather be a door- 
keeper in the house of the Lord than to dwell in the tents 
of wickedness." As, Moses when he yielded to the nobler 
impulse and chose to suffer affliction with the people of 
God rather than enjoy the pleasures of sin for a season. 
As, Ruth who said to Naomi, "Your people shall be my 



THE WILL 105 

people, and your God, my God." As, Joshua, who said, 
"As for me and my house, we will serve the Lord." As 
Paul, who wrote, "That in all things he might have the 
preeminence." 

(2) Helping the pupils to see the consequences of yield- 
ing to lower desires. This is preventive work. Nothing is 
finer or more helpful to pupils in the period of youth : for 
information of this kind strengthens boys and girls against 
temptations that are sure to come. It was a wise teacher 
who showed the effect of alcohol on the brain and nerves 
by a simple experiment of putting an egg in alcohol. A 
teacher of boys did fine preventive work by organizing 
them into an "anti-smut club," the fundamental principle 
of which was that they would not look on pictures or 
listen to stories that they could not tell their mothers 
about. 

2. Three things involved in an act of the will. 

After desire has been awakened, the will must act either 
for or against the object desired. This act involves: 

(1) Deliberation. Certain alternatives must be con- 
sidered in each act of the will. One idea must be balanced 
over against another; attention is fixed upon one alterna- 
tive, it is dismissed, and attention is turned to another. 
For example, a boy hears the appeal to do "A-grade" work, 
and stand with his class to receive honors on promotion 
day ; he thinks over the conditions ; it will mean that he 
must be there, on time, with studied lesson, offering, Bible, 
and attend the preaching services ; he thinks of the benefits 
of doing this and of the loss in not doing it; he decides 
that he can do it and that he will. 

Many times, deliberation leads to abandonment of the 
idea and in not doing things. Not every "motor idea" 
should go out in action. A restraining influence is neces- 
sary in our lives, for obvious reasons. One idea can re- 
strain the action of another, as when a child reaches out 
to touch the hot stove and the memory of the former 
burnt finger causes it to withdraw its hand. This power 
that one idea has of restraining or diverting the action of 
another is called inhibition. 



io6 PUPIL LIFE 

The period of deliberation is a long one, many times, 
especially with adults. It is a time of argument; the mat- 
ter must be looked at from all sides and in every light. 
This is especially true in conversion; the period of delib- 
eration is often a long and hard road to travel. Many false 
notions must be gotten out of the way, and only a clear 
understanding of the simple conditions of salvation can 
bring a decision. The teacher may come in as a helper in 
sympathy, prayer and instruction. 

(2) Decision. The mental debate must come to an 
end and judgment or decision must be rendered. Aftej the 
prodigal son had debated his condition with himself, he 
said, "I will arise and go to my father." 

Decision is the end of the process of deliberation and 
always requires an effort of the will. "To make up our 
minds" is often no easy task, as it requires concentrated 
attention. If one can only keep the attention focused upon 
the right thing, he is likely to choose it. 

(3) Execution. The third essential of an act of the 
will is to do the thing decided upon. Execution is the final 
test of the will. Many a good decision has never been 
carried out ; it did not sufficiently arouse the motor cen- 
ters to action; the current was never turned on. Many a 
New Year's resolution is never put into execution. Many 
a man "resolves and re-resolves and dies the same at last." 
The splendid thing about the prodigal son is that he got 
to his father's house. 

The secret of the execution of a decision of the will is 
often in finding the way or the plan by which to carry it 
out. Sometimes it is necessary to burn the bridges behind 
us and carve out a new road in front of us. William Carey 
and Adoniram Judson both did this. A story is told of 
Benjamin Franklin's plan to keep from drinking liquor; 
it was this : whenever he smelt liquor he opened his hand 
and kept it wide open until the smell had passed away. No 
glass of liquor ever got to his lips ! 

The teacher must often suggest to the pupils a plan 
for carrying out their decisions. Suppose it is a case of 
a pupil who has professed faith in Christ and wants to 



THE WILL 107 

join the church but the parents object on the ground that 
the child is "too young," or "not good enough. ,, Mariy 
teachers of the older Primary children and of the Juniors 
have such experiences. In such cases, the teacher can ren- 
der valuable aid to the pupil and perhaps to the parents, 
keeping the child's hope in Christ bright and keeping the 
determination to follow Him in baptism strong, while wait- 
ing for the time when this important step may be taken 
with the parents' consent. 

II. Kinds of Will. 

The Sunday school teacher's aim is to move the will 
of the pupil for the right against the wrong. The teacher 
should know the kind of will which the pupil has. We will 
consider some best known types of will : 

1. The Strong Will. When we say that a person has 
a strong will, usually we mean it as a compliment. Strong 
will does not mean obstinacy. Obstinate people are "set 
in their ways" and are not open to conviction; hence this 
type of will cannot be morally strong, since it is not open 
to new light on a subject and does not give to any sub- 
ject impartial consideration. On the other hand, a strong 
will in the best sense is vigorous, conquers difficulties, and 
achieves victories. It sees the reasons for and against the 
action, takes the whole situation into consideration, and 
moves energetically towards its goal. 

Such was the will of Martin Luther when he marched 
to the Diet of Worms saying, when warned by his friends 
not to go, "I will go even though the devils be as thick 
in my way as the tiles upon the roofs of the houses." This 
kind of will holds a man strong and true to his purpose in 
spite of obstacles. It is like the backbone of the human 
body — a series of bones properly adjusted. 

2. The Weak Will. Some pupils unfortunately have 
weak wills. They appear indifferent to most things, un- 
decided in their movements, and seem unable to "screw 
up courage to the sticking point." "They suffer from in- 
tellectual malaria and moral inertia." 

In the majority of cases, a weak will is found along 



io8 PUPIL LIFE 

with a rather weak intellect. Since the will moves as a 
result of knowing and feeling, the weak will is explained 
on the basis that there is little power of connected thought, 
hence no conviction and little feeling. The ideas that form 
the "stream of consciousness" are separate, not connected, 
and each tends to become an impulse in itself, driving the 
possessor in a zigzag course, here and there. This ten- 
dency to yield to each and every impulse that comes along 
explains the moral weakness of many people; they go to 
church or to the theater or to the saloon according to the 
company they are in. 

The weak willed person needs, most of all, a new mo- 
tive, a new interest, a new desire. The gospel wonderfully 
supplies this, as evidenced by many heathen who have 
learned the gospel messages and found their wills strength- 
ened and their minds renewed by it. 

The Sunday school teacher cannot undertake to rem- 
edy the mental defects of pupils, but may know the situa- 
tion and what is needed and very simply teach the truths 
of the gospel. If deficient pupils can once get these truths, 
they will likely prove the best means to strengthen de- 
sires for higher and better things. 

III. The Teaching Value of the Will. 

The teaching value lies in the relation of will to char- 
acter. Our lives are but the sum total of our past will- 
ings, and our willings harden rapidly into habit. We us- 
ually put it: "Will determines habit, and habit determines 
character." So the will determines both. Right education 
of the will results in the right formation of character. "A 
cultivated will is but another name for a strong character." 

Habits of honesty, diligence, study, punctuality, rever- 
ence, thoughtfulness, and such like, are largely matters 
of will and when once formed go to make up strong char- 
acters. In the Sunday school, these matters are emphasized 
in the period of youth — the habit-forming period — and in- 
struction is given about them so that the pupils may will 
to do them. In many schools, six points are emphasized, 
graded upon, and awarded by honors : attendance, punctual- 



THE WILL 109 

ity, Bible in hand, studied lesson attendance upon preaching. 
All these are desirable habits and require will power to 
attain them. The teacher encourages and persuades and 
instructs in order to create a conviction in favor of these 
desirable things. 

IV. How to Develop the Will. 

1. Have Respect for It. It can be developed and 
directed, with proper care, just as memory or imagination 
or attention can. John Wesley wrote, "Break your child's 
will in order that its soul may live ; break its will as soon 
as it speaks plainly, or even before it can speak at all." 

Today, all denounce "will breaking" and advocate "will 
training." The Christian parent and teacher today says, 
"I will help the child control his will, no matter what it 
costs me" — not, "I will break the child's will, no matter 
what it costs him." The broken will of a child would be 
as deplorable a condition as the broken leg of a fine race 
horse. 

2. Freedom and Exercise. 

Recognize the necessity for freedom and for ex- 
ercise. If the will develops, it must be free to exercise. 
It cannot be developed by proxy and must not be forced. 
There must be the chance to decide between various 
courses of action. 

Suppose some guardian or overseer made all the choices 
of a certain boy until he was sixteen years old, what kind 
of a will would he have ? His will would be nil. He would 
be a "tin soldier." 

As applied to the Sunday school teacher, the point is 
plain : each pupil must make a decision for Christ for him- 
self. God's plan is that "each one shall give an account 
of himself unto God," and "the soul that sinneth, it shall 
die." It is a personal matter. God forces no one into the 
kingdom. He made our wills, gave them freedom, and 
offers us the choice of His service. "I have set before you 
life and death, blessing and cursing; therefore choose 
life" (Deut. 30: 19). The teacher's work is to teach the 



no PUPIL LIFE 

truth, hold up the right ideal, make the pathway plain as 
the Scripture does, and stir the feelings with appropriate 
illustrations. In every way possible, influence the pupil to 
exercise his power of deliberation, choosing between life 
and death — and make the right decision. 

3. Right Desires. 

Through proper training of bodily appetite, if the pu- 
pil's food is of the right kind, he develops a desire for the 
wholesome things and ignores the unwholesome. So the 
pupil can develop the right kind of mental appetites and 
desires. As wholesome foods give pleasure and strength, 
so do good and happy desires give pleasure and strength. 
Through training in proper companionship and pleasures 
during the formative years, a real desire for this kind will 
be developed and a corresponding indifference to wrong 
companionship. 

The Sunday school teacher has ample opportunity to 
aid in this development by stressing the good and its pleas- 
urable outcome. For example: In temperance teaching, 
go from a brief comment upon bad effects of stimulants 
to the blessing of sound nerves, pure blood, unclouded 
brain, to which intoxicants and narcotics are unknown, 
and for which pure air and abundant sunshine are the only 
needed stimulants. Aim to stir the pupil's enthusiasm at 
the prospect of conquering the lower desires through the 
superior power of the higher. 

A teacher of older boys was trying to accomplish this 
task one Sunday and greatly interested the class by using 
the analogy of the baseball game and the value of "con- 
trol." He talked about pitchers who had "curve" and 
"speed" but lacked "control." Without "control" the pitch- 
er was "wild" and gave bases on balls, hit the batters, 
threw the ball way in the "pinches" and was finally sent 
back to the bench to make way for a man who possibly 
had less "speed" and "curve," but who had "control" and 
could put the ball over the plate. That man won the game. 
Why? Because he could be depended upon; he had control. 

Then followed a talk about what was back of that con- 



THE WILL in 

trol — the long days of patient practice, the proper food 
at the training table, leaving off tobacco and drinks, and 
the care in every way of the body. The transition was 
then made to the "game of life" and the value of proper 
control of the powers God has put within us, and the joy 
of having Christ to help us get control and keep it, for 
He says, "As thy days so shall thy strength be." 

V. Summary and Suggested Methods. 

i. The Will of Children, or Beginners and Primaries. 

The general principle is this : Children's wills act quick- 
ly, for good or bad, because their feelings lie at the sur- 
face and are quickly aroused. Deliberation is very brief, 
as they have not developed that ability. Children are im- 
pulsive; they act when "they feel like it"; if the feeling 
is wrong, and their wills are opposed, they become stub- 
born. Often they are punished in an attempt to break their 
stubborn wills. 

Hence the method: The teacher should try to implant 
in children the right kind of desires. Through the story, 
picture to them the beauty of loving words and gentle 
deeds ; of the obedient and helpful child in the home and 
among its friends. Stir them to want to be like the child 
in the story. 

A case of stubbornness is always a problem, whether 
in the home or in the Sunday school. Possibly the best 
plan for the Sunday school teacher is not to try "will 
breaking" but to avoid a strained situation if possible. This 
may be done sometimes by dropping the subject of con- 
tention and talking about something else. Sometimes the 
teacher may tell a mirror story that will show the ugli- 
ness of the stubborn spirit, and the child will respond to 
the teachings of the story. 

A little boy insisted on going home after Sunday school 
and his father insisted upon his staying for preaching. 
How easy it would have been to have had a "scene" if 
the father had sternly asserted his authority. But the 
father had common sense as well as religion, and remem- 
bered how a little fellow might feel after being in Sun- 



112 PUPIL LIFE 

day school an hour and a half. So he said, "Come, let's 
take a walk, as it is bright and warm outside and we 
can hear the church bells ringing. ,, He started out with 
the little fellow, telling him a story and walking — not 
towards home. After enjoying the sunshine, his son was 
feeling better, so the father veered around towards the 
church; getting opposite the entrance, the little son said, 
"Let's go in ; I think we will find mother in there." Train- 
ing the will is better than breaking it, and more pleasant 
for both parties. 

2. The Will of Youths, or Juniors and Intermediates. 

The general principle is this: Their feelings are not so 
quickly aroused nor their wills moved, because these pu- 
pils are beginning to know a good deal; the teacher must 
reach their wills through the gateways of knowing and 
feeling. Because of increased knowledge, deliberation is 
possible and their minds, when once made up, are not so 
easily changed; their wills are stronger for good or for 
bad. As the power of knowing increases, the pupil can 
make better selections and decisions, since there is a wider 
range of choices. Upon this basis, it is easier to reason with 
these pupils than with children. 

Hence the method: Emphasize the importance of knowl- 
ing. Lead these pupils to learn all the Bible facts possi- 
ble. Set them to studying the lives of great Bible char- 
acters so they will want to be like them. 

This is the period, above all others, for making deci- 
sions for Christ. It is the easiest and best time to surrender 
the will to Him ; doubts have not yet begun to arise and 
the pupils are frank, easily led, and open to instruction 
and appeal. If the pupils make no profession of Christ 
during the Junior period, it should be a special burden upon 
the teacher's heart. Supreme emphasis should be put upon 
an early decision to trust Christ as Savior. 

3. The Will of Adults. 

The general principle is this : Adult life is the period 
of greatest deliberation, as the growth of intellectual pow- 
ers brings about many possibilities of action and many con- 



THE WILL 113 

flicting desires. Each course of action pleads its cause 
before the will. After due deliberation, a decision is 
reached. Adults exercise the highest power of the mind, 
that of deliberate choice. 

Hence the method: The teacher should have great re- 
spect for the strong will of the Adult pupil and approach 
it, sometimes besiege it, by the pathway of the intellect 
and feelings. In order to get a decision, it is well to present 
all the facts in the case, arraying them logically so they 
will be convincing, and illustrating them so as to drive 
them home. Seize upon every worthy plan to lead these 
pupils to do things because it is right to do them. 

This principle applies especially to the activities of an 
organized Adult class. Many a time the plan for doing the 
thing is the point which causes the will to yield and the 
members to join hands in that service. Many pupils will 
say, "Yes," when they see through the plan to the end 
in view. Once engaged in service, they taste the joy of 
it and give themselves wholly to it. Often the will of an 
Adult is surrendered for service in proportion to the sat- 
isfaction of soul experienced in service. 

QUESTIONS TO GUIDE AND TEST LESSON STUDY. 

1. Define the will. To what is it compared? 

2. What methods may be used in training pupils to yield to higher 
motives ? 

. 3. Name and describe the three things involved in an act of the will. 

4. Name and describe the kinds of will. 

5. What is the teaching value of the will? 

6. Give three suggestions for developing the will. 

7. Suggest a method for dealing with the will of children, of youths, 
and of adults. 



TOPICS FOR FURTHER DISCUSSION. (OPTIONAL.) 

1. In studying the will, what light is thrown upon the saying, "Hell 
is paved with good intentions"? 

2. In your opinion, which is the strongest character, the one ruled 
by feeling, intellect or will? 

3. What is the difference between a strong will and an obstinate will? 
Between precipitate wills and fickle wills ? 

4. What bearing has repression and substitution upon the work of 
training the pupil's will? Illustrate each. 

5. Outline the value of co-operation in training the will. Apply it 
to the Sunday school. 

References: Angell, "Psychology," Chapters XX, XXII; James' "Talks 
to Teachers," Chapter XV; Halleck's "Psychology," Chapters XII, XIII; 
Stalker's "Christian Psychology," Chapter IX. 

(8) 



CHAPTER XI. 
Habit and Character. 

As the word "feeling" covers a wide range, so does 
the word "habit"; it may include many physical, mental, 
and moral aspects. Of all the laws of the mind, possibly 
the law of habit is the widest and most fundamental, 
underlying all that the mind does. Habit includes a com- 
bination of mental and physical activities, and thus be- 
longs to both psychology and physiology. 

I. Definition. 

"Habit is a fixed tendency to think, feel, or act in a 
peculiar way under special circumstances." Habit is often 
called "second nature"; it might be called "particularized 
and confirmed nature." When habits are fixed and become 
our master we may well say with Wellington, "Habit is 
ten times nature." Habit is, generally speaking, only an- 
other name for repetition. 

The lam of habit may be stated thus : "Any connection, 
nervous or mental — between impressions, ideas, thoughts, 
memories, feelings, movements — once made, tends to re- 
cur." 

Note the physical aspect of the law of habit. Since 
the mind works out its will through the body, there is a 
physical basis for habit ; it is a fact that the nerves and 
muscles are altered or modified through use, so that the 
set of muscles and nerves employed in doing a certain 
thing receive a bent in that direction. As water, running 
through sand, cuts a channel for itself, so, after a fashion, 
do sensations cut for themselves grooves or pathways 
through the nerve cells. The connections between certain 
ideas and movements become so well established that the 
resulting actions require practically no effort of the will, 
as saying '"Good morning," shaking hands, sitting down 
at the table, -walking, and such like. At first, these move- 
ments require careful attention ; but oft repeated, they be- 
come automatic. The habit gets us. The word "habit" 



HABIT AND CHARACTER 115 

comes from the Latin, habeo, "I have it," but may swiftly 
change to habet, "It has me." 

A piece of paper or cloth folded for the first time would 
show little effects, yet an impression would be made upon 
it ; if folded again and again, the crease would stay and 
it would tend to fold at that place whenever handled. So 
all actions of the mind, when repeated, tend to follow estab- 
lished grooves or pathways. Professor James says, "Noth- 
ing is easier than to imagine how, when a current has once 
traversed a path, it should traverse it more readily still 
a second time." 

II. Some Essentials in Habit Forming. 

Although the Sunday school teacher has the pupil but 
once a week, certain impressions can be made and certain 
habits established that will prove a blessing throughout 
life. Among the habits aimed at by the Sunday school are 
Bible study, prayer, reverence, worship, obedience, unself- 
ishness, and such like; these should be in the teacher's 
thoughts Sunday morning and during the week as far as 
opportunity can be found to follow up the Sunday teach- 
ing. 

Four essentials of habit forming are worthy of con- 
sideration : / 

1. Information. A good habit must result from a 
knowledge of the ends to be gained by it, and of the is- 
sues involved. We instinctively seek what is pleasurable 
and avoid what is painful. Many a bad habit has been 
broken and a good habit acquired in its stead because a 
man has seen the harm of the bad and the need for the 
good. Hence the value of instruction in leading pupils to 
form correct habits, 

2. Self -activity. No one can talk habits into us ; we 
must work them into ourselves. Habits result from repe- 
tition on the part of individuals, hence the necessity for 
self-activity. To form a habit may at first require strict 
attention and exertion of the will, but with each exercise 
it becomes easier. "Each victory will help you some other 
to win." 



n6 PUPIL LIFE 

3. Perseverance. In establishing a habit, it is essen- 
tial to keep it up, stick to it, and suffer no exception until 
it is firmly fixed. Go to Sunday school every Sunday, rain 
or shine, until the habit gets you. Each Saturday evening 
get all things in readiness for prompt and happy attend- 
ance upon the services of the Lord's Day. 

4. Cooperation. Join with others who do the things 
you wish to do. Much depends upon environment and at- 
mosphere ; the power of influence and association is strong 
in habit forming. Put yourself in the atmosphere that 
will be most helpful. Habits go in groups, so it is well to 
link up all the good tendencies possible as a help in form- 
ing good habits. One value of the organized class work 
is that it binds the pupils together in church attendance, 
Bible study, prayer, reverence, and such like, and gives 
companionship which helps each one. 

III. The Teaching Value of Habit. 

1. Habit as Related to Character. "The will determines 
habit, and habit determines character." "Character is what 
we are" and "We are the sum of our habits." Hence 
habits make character. Man is spoken of as a "bundle of 
habits," and the definition is not unfitting. We inherit a 
nature, but we acquire a character by repeated acts. 

What makes our habits? It is the will, the ego, the 
spirit back of every act, and every repetition of the act 
which fixes the habit. We are responsible for each new 
act and for its repetition until it becomes a habit. "Hab- 
its are the dress of the spirit"; the word "habit" means 
literally a garment and we speak of a "riding habit" in 
this literal sense. So within us is a spirit either good or 
bad which clothes itself in habits, or "garments," the sum 
of which form a character. 

The supreme concern of the Sunday school teacher 
should be about the spirit back of a habit. If the pupils 
are Christians, they have in them a "new nature ;" the 
Holy Spirit works with and through the pupil's spirit to 
form good habits. If this is the case, our teachers may 
work with hope and assurance ; their efforts are not wast- 



HABIT AND CHARACTER 117 

ed; they are "workers together with God." Trying to 
train an evil spirit in Godly habits is superficial, like tying 
good apples with rotten strings to a thorn tree. 

2. Habits are largely fixed before middle life. We can- 
not escape forming habits. Our mental and physical activ- 
ities naturally tend to repeat themselves. Certain connec- 
tions between ideas and actions, or between feelings and 
actions, will be established. Education seeks to draw out, 
during the earlier years, the inherent powers of the soul 
through correct channels, or along right pathways, so that 
right habits may be fixed. By the age of twelve, many 
habits are established as they will remain throughout life. 
The teacher's work, therefore, through education and 
drill, is to lead the pupil to form correct habits. In one 
sense, education is habit making — or habit making is edu- 
cation — since good habits result in true culture. Careless 
habits cannot result in culture. 

(1) Childhood is the time for forming good habits. 
In childhood, the nerve cells are plastic and can be molded 
at will ; in youth, the cells begin to harden ; by middle life, 
they have "set." People of thirty have their general hab- 
its fixed; they seldom change their movements, gestures, 
and general posture of body. Vocabulary and manner of 
speech is fixed; new languages can rarely be learned per- 
fectly after thirty. 

Considering the physical basis of habit, childhood is 
the golden period of habit formation and is the teacher's 
great opportunity. As in childhood the forces of the life 
were led to cut for themselves certain channels, so through 
these general channels will the life current flow on in the 
?uture. 

Few hardened sinners ever leave off their vicious hab- 
its ; some do, because they get a new life principle through 
the grace of God in regeneration, and this "new life from 
above" cuts for itself new channels. Happy the child whose 
parents and teachers seek to draw out its activities along 
lines that lead to righteousness ; who "set the currents of 
the soul in channels of truth." 



n8 PUPIL LIFE 

"No change in childhood's early day, 
No storm that raged, no thought that ran, 
But leaves a track upon the clay 
That slowly hardens into man." 

(2) Before the pupil's conversion, the teacher may 
teach and train in habits that will help the pupil to be- 
come a Christian. Among such habits are attendance upon 
the Sunday school and preaching services, Bible study, rev- 
erence for God's house and His day. 

After the pupil's conversion, the teacher's opportunity 
is to train in habits that will develop spirituality. As the 
Sunday school is chiefly a teaching service, the principal 
habit that should result from attendance upon it is that of 
Bible study. The organized class, when working efficient- 
ly, develops the pupil in other worthy lines, such as win- 
ning members for the class and in simple benevolences. 
Should the young Christian have the privileges of a mod- 
ern Young People's Society, he would get still more definite 
training in habits of public testimony, prayer, reading 
and quoting Scripture, discussion of Christian activities 
and church duties ; also training in the duties of the officers 
and the committees in a church organization. 

3. Some Practical Values of Habit. 

(1) Habit economizes energy and makes us more 
efficient than we could otherwise be. Habits become "sec- 
ond nature," and require little efifort. This is nature's pro- 
vision against wasting our energy; it makes growth and 
accumulation of knowledge possible. When the mind mas- 
ters an activity, it seems to hand it over to habit to take 
care of in the future and bring into play when needed ; thus 
the mind is left free to acquire new knowledge. Some 
authorities estimate that ninety-nine one-hundredths of 
all we do is by habit. "Habit makes us experts in conduct." 

(2) Habit is a valuable aid in the accumulation of 
knowledge. A good student is one that has the habit of 
study rightly developed ; a poor student is one who has 
a habit of mental laziness. All processes by which we gain 
knowledge can be trained in correct habits. 



HABIT AND CHARACTER 119 

For example, paying attention can be cultivated by bat- 
tling against the temptation to let the mind wander. By 
will power, a student can make himself think of the les- 
son in hand. Many times the student will force himself 
to pay attention by summoning his will power, putting 
his hands over his eyes to shade them, putting his thumbs 
against his ears to shut out distracting sounds, and saying 
over aloud the thing he wishes to learn. 

IV. How to Cultivate Habit. 
1. Cultivation of Good Habits. 

(1) Children. It was suggested above that by the age 
of twelve most of life's common habits are formed, most 
of the habits which are called "manners ;" their pathways 
have been cut deep and they are anchored down in the 
nerve tissues and the brain cells. To break up these es- 
tablished pathways and make new ones, is an heroic task, 
as all who have tried it will testify. Before the age of 
twelve, if bad habits manifest themselves, they can be 
broken with less difficulty than afterwards for the obvious 
reason that before twelve the nerve tissue is plastic, while 
after twelve it begins to harden. Habits of correct speech, 
manners, dress, and the like, should be given careful at- 
tention during the years of childhood. 

How careful the teacher of children should be to help 
them form habits that will not need to be broken! How 
anxious teachers should be to make automatic as many 
g-ood habits as possible. The great thing for the teacher 
to aim at is "to make the nervous system of the child an 
ally instead of an enemy." 

The Sunday school teacher has as a goal the formation 
bv the pupil of those habits that relate to Bible study and 
Christian living. The most common of these are regular 
and punctual attendance upon Sunday school and preaching, 
Bible study, systematic giving, practical benevolences, and 
reverent attention during the exercises of the Lord's Day. 

Some Methods. In all these aims of the Sunday school 
teacher, imitation is a strong factor with the pupils ; hence 



120 PUPIL LIFE 

the teacher must set the right example Further, instruc- 
tion regarding the benefits of these habits and recognition 
with honor if the pupil makes satisfactory records, are 
the general methods which the Sunday school teacher may 
employ. Back of all methods, of course, the true teacher 
must make the class a subject of prayer and must rely 
upon the help of the Holy Spirit in all his efforts. 

(2) Youths. The period of youth, especially after the 
age of twelve, requires careful handling. Before the age 
of twelve, temptations are not very strong; but after 
twelve they increase in strength with each succeeding 
year. Hence the period after the twelfth year has been 
called the "storm and stress period/' Good habits must 
be fixed in spite of temptations on every hand. The pupil 
has developed the bodily appetites and passions of adults, 
but lacks their experience; he has developed the sail, but 
lacks the ballast for his ship. 

This is the period of choices. Before the age of twelve, 
there is but little to puzzle the pupil in making personal 
choices, as parents advise and many times decide ; but after 
twelve the matter of choice rests more and more upon the 
pupil himself ; he must make many of the supreme choices 
of life. The Sunday school teacher may render aid by ad- 
vising the pupil concerning such choices as those of com- 
panions, reading, amusement, and possibly the choosing 
of a life calling ; and, greatest of all, in the supreme choice 
of the spiritual principles and ideals which will fix the 
Christian habits of life. 

If the pupil is not a Christian in this period, that mat- 
ter should mean a crisis in the pupil's life, and give the 
teacher more and more concern with each succeeding year. 

The teacher may count on a few conditions as helps 
in guiding the pupils to make the right choice: (1) The 
years have brought out in the average normal pupil an 
ability to discern between good and bad, a growing ap- 
preciation of virtue as its own reward, and some knowl- 
er 1 *-^ of the effects of sin and the consequences of evil 
living. (2) A growing will power, aided by judgment and 
reason, to hold a steady rein, and keep the powers of the 



HABIT AND CHARACTER 121 

body under control. (3) A growing appreciation of the 
lives of noble men, who lived righteously in spite of tempta- 
tions which surrounded them. This appreciation greatly 
helps the pupil to fix ideals and choose life callings. 

If the pupil is already a Christian, the points suggested 
above are intensified and strengthened by his Christian 
experience ; his bent is toward right habits. 

(3) Adults. Professor James suggests some rules for 
the formation of habits and, as they are especially appli- 
cable to adults, we quote them : (a) "Launch ourselves with 
as strong an initiative as possible." After deciding to form 
a certain habit, strengthen your will by some plan of asso- 
ciation or publicity; surround yourself with things that 
will hold you to your good purpose. Pledge signing, prom- 
ising to do the thing, a public declaration of your inten- 
tion — any right means of "plunging in" will help. The 
beautiful and impressive ordinance of baptism is the most 
sacred of all public declarations of the purpose to "walk 
in newness of life." 

(b) "Never suffer an exception to occur until the new 
habit is firmly fixed." In breaking a bad habit, to make 
an exception and "go just this once," or "take just this 
me drink," often means to lose all the ground that has 
been gained heretofore. The act of yielding weakens the 
will and the indulgence strengthens the appetite. Poor 
old Rip Van Winkle, in the play, had little idea of the laws 
of habit when he said, as he took another drink, "I won't 
count this one." 

(c) "Seize the first opportunity to act on every reso- 
lution you make and on everv emotional prompting in the 
direction of the habit you wish to form." 

After a stirring* lesson on missions, it would be wise 
to do something- definite for the fields which have been 
studied about ; for example, write a letter to one of the 
missionaries, or make an offering to one of the needy sta- 
tions, or put some one of the workers on the prayer list. 
After a fine sermon, it would be well to speak a good word 
about it to the first person you meet, and thus pass on the 
truth that blessed you. Do not simply resolve. 



122 PUPIL LIFE 

Many Christians suffer from spiritual indigestion, and 
need exercise. A worthy example is that of a great Bible 
teacher in one of the largest seminaries, who takes time 
each week, though not a pastor, for visiting among the 
needy of his community just to keep up his habit of good 
works, as well as to do all the good he can for others. It 
is well for a Christian to have some habit of expressing 
the impressions which stir the nobler purposes of his na- 
ture. 

2. Breaking Bad Habits. The best way to break a bad 
habit is to overcome it with a good one. "Overcome evil 
with good," can apply in this connection. This is the well- 
known principle of the "expulsive power of a new affec- 
tion," meaning that the new interest or desire will out- 
weigh and overcome the old. Feed the good impulse and 
starve the bad. Strengthen the good habits by repetition, 
and weaken the bad habit by neglect. Drive the darkness 
out of the room by turning on the light. 

Motives. In helping pupils to break bad habits, 
teachers and parents must make a study of the motives 
that underly the objectionable actions. "Why does he do 
that," or "Why won't she do this," are common questions 
with parents and teachers, and the answer to them reveals 
the motives of the pupils. 

New and better habits will be formed when a new and 
better motive can be fixed in the pupil's life. Unconverted 
people sin habitually ; but if converted, they will form hab- 
its of righteousness because conversion gives them a new 
motive, a new heart, and a renewing of the spirit. Witness 
Jerry McAuley, the criminal, who became the great apos- 
tle to the poor and needy of New York City, all because 
he was converted and got a new motive for life. 

Put an idea into the head of a sluggard, and he will 
soon be on his feet, busy about the new interest ; fire his 
heart with a great ambition, and a miracle of activity will 
result. 

If Sunday school pupils are habitually late or indiffer- 
ent to lesson study, get a right motive into them and the 



HABIT AND CHARACTER 123 

desired habits will result. There is a way to get good re- 
sults from every class in the Sunday school; the problem 
is to get the teacher of the class to believe this and to 
search for a method which will put the new motive into 
the class. Sometimes the motive may be implanted by at- 
tractive class organization, or by visiting the pupil in the 
home, or by a personal conversation, a letter, or by com- 
plimenting some good quality. 

Jean Val Jean, the escaped convict, found his ambition 
for life transformed by his love for the needy child left 
to his care ; he became a truly brave and useful man for 
her sake. Thousands of others have lived the heroic life 
for the sake of Him who first loved us. 

3. Character. There can be no life without activity, 
hence it is impossible to live without forming some kind of 
character. The word "character" means literally "engraved 
or stamped with a .writing tool" ; by usage the idea has 
been shifted to mean the "marks" upon one's self by his 
own acts, disposition and habits, as if these things were 
tools that marked him, or stamped him, with their own 
peculiar impress. 

From the standpoint of psychology, character has been 
defined as a "bundle of habits" or "the self-formed hab- 
its of the will." These definitions indicate how both will 
and habit are bound up in their outcome — character. As 
choices will tend to fix themselves into habits, they 
"stamp" the individual with their peculiar effects ; thus 
character becomes the sum and result of all the habits we 
have acquired. Will which is back of the habit, becomes 
then the important consideration in character-building 
since its energy, firmness and consistency moulds and fash- 
ions character. 

Moral character is that type of character in which 
moral principles are so strong that they shape the entire 
volition. The aim of the Sunday school teacher is to mould 
Christian character— which is the truest and best type of 
moral character. In Christian character, the will is^ con- 
trolled by Christian principles, thus forming Christian 



124 PUPIL LIFE 

habits which are used as channels for the expression of 
the life in Christian deeds. 

In this sense, moral, or Christian, character may be 
considered the sum of all good habits. 

How applicable this is to religious instruction and ex- 
ercise is apparent, as the development of Christian char- 
acter comes as a result of religious belief working itself 
out in religious exercises, turning away from evil tempta- 
tions, forming habits of unselfish service. 
V. Summary and Suggested Methods. 

i. The Habits of Children are chiefly physical and the 
result of repetition. Hence train them in regular and punc- 
tual attendance, reverent attention, systematic giving, 
faithful preparation of the home work and memory work. 

2. The Habits of Youths are formed as a result of de- 
sires and motives ; help them to desire the right things and 
yield to the best motives. 

3. The Habits of Adults result from knowledge of cer- 
tain lines of action, their desirability and practical value ; 
appeal first to their judgment and reason, then help them 
to find a plan to carry out the new purpose that they have 
formed. 



QUESTIONS TO GUIDE AND TEST LESSON STUDY. 

1. Define habit. Describe the physical aspect of the law of habit. 
Illustrate. 

2. Name four essentials in habit forming. 

3. What is the teaching value of habit? 

4. What habits may be formed best in childhood? What before the 
pupil's conversion? 

5. Give two practical values of habit. 

6. How may children be led to cultivate good habits? How may 
adults? 

7. How may bad habits best be broken? 

8. Define character. How is character formed? 

TOPICS FOR FURTHER DISCUSSION. (OPTIONAL.) 

1. How is habit influenced by the law of association of ideas? Make 
a list of items of this kind in connection with the pupil's attendance upon 
Sunday school. , . ■ 

2. What value has habit on busy days? On leisure days? 

3. From the standpoint of growth in Christian life, what is the 
most valuable habit a young Christian can form? Why? 

4. How does discipline affect habit? 

5. Discuss the value of "preventive work" and inhibition in regard 
to training in habits. Apply the suggestions to each department of the 

UI References:' Halleck's "Psychology," Chapter XIII; Stalker's "Chris- 
tian Psychology," Chapter VI; James' "Talks to Teachers," Chapter VHI. 



CHAPTER XII. 
Review. 
I. Restatement of Some Things Already Learned. 

(i) The value of the study. It stands to reason that 
however well a teacher may know the Bible he must have 
a knowledge of the pupil to do good teaching. One can 
know how to teach a pupil only by knowing how that 
pupil learns, and one may know how a pupil learns only 
by knowing the nature, functions and laws of the mind. 

(2) Nature and functions of the mind. The mind is 
neither a blank upon which to write, nor an empty space to 
be filled by pouring something into it; but rather a vital, 
growing organism to be developed. As the growth of our 
bodies depends upon proper food and exercise, so the 
growth of the mind depends upon proper nourishment, 
exercise and environment. 

Adaptation of material is a principle that applies both 
to bodily and mental development. As certain foods suit 
the body at certain times of life, while other foods are 
less suitable or even detrimental, so there are certain 
kinds of truth or knowledge which are best adapted to 
mental growth at given periods of life. These periods of 
life are determined largely by the pupil's age and advance- 
ment. 

II. Three functions of the Mind. The mind manifests 
itself under three functions, or powers, known as : 

(1) Intellect, or the power to know. 

(2) Emotions or sensibilities, or the power to feel. 

(3) Will, or the power to decide and do things. 

The Intellect has certain functions which may be 
grouped under three heads : 

(1) Presentative powers, such as perception, apper- 
ception. 

(2) Representative powers, such as memory and im- 
agination. 

(3) Thought powers, such as judgment, reason. 



126 PUPIL LIFE 

III. Some definitions reviewed: 

i. Mind: the power to know, feel, and will. 

2. Intellect: the power to know. 

3. Emotions: the power to feel. 

4. Will: the power to act. 

5. Perception: the power of the mind to gain ideas 
through the five senses. 

6. Apperception: the power of the mind to gain new 
knowledge by means of what it already has. 

7. Consciousness: the power of the mind to know its 
own acts. 

8. Attention: the power of the mind to concentrate 
consciousness. 

9. Memory: the power of the mind to retain and re- 
produce percepts. 

10. Imagination: the power of the mind to arrange 
reproduced percepts into new forms. 

11. Thought: the power of the mind by which it dis- 
cerns relations. 

12. Judgment: the power to compare concepts and 
decide whether or not they agree. 

13. Reason: the power to compare judgments and 
decide whether or not they agree. 

14. To know a thing is to be conscious of its existence. 

15. To understand a thing is to know it in its relations 
to other things. 

16. Psychology: the scientific study of the nature and 
course of experience ; experience includes all our mental 
states and processes, such as thoughts, memories, emo- 
tions, perceptions and sensations. 

17. Psychology as related to Physiology: the "clay 
cottage" is both the shelter and support of the mind, and 
instrument of the mind. The mind is not brain and nerves ; 
like its Creator, the mind works through brain and nerves, 
yet it is above them. 



REVIEW AND TEST 127 

18. Curiosity is a desire to know ; it is a kind of men- 
tal hunger or appetite of the mind. 

19. Degrees of Curiosity: (1) The curiosity of chil- 
dren is chiefly concerned with objects; they ask "What?" 
It is quickly satisfied. (2) The curiosity of youths may 
be called inquisitiveness ; they ask "What?" and "Why?" 
(3) Adults are investigators ; they seek new information, 
classify it and make conclusions. 

20. The teaching value of Curiosity: Curiosity is the 
mother of interest ; interest is the mother of knowledge. 
Curiosity may be deepened into interest. 

21. How awaken Curiosity: (1) By appeal to the eye 
through pictures and objects; (2) by appeal to the ear 
through the story and the question. 

22. Curiosity, and suggested methods: (1) In teach* 
ing children, arouse curiosity ; let the children handle the 
objects and pictures; encourage them to ask questions. 
(2) In teaching youths, lead them to discover truths for 
themselves ; when they have gotten facts, encourage them 
to tell about them. (3) In teaching adults, combine the 
question and answer method with the lecture; encourage 
them to use their own powers in discovering Bible truths. 

23. Kinds of Attention: (1) Involuntary, the kind 
which the pupil cannot help giving ; requires no will power. 
(2) Voluntary, the kind which we force ourselves to give; 
requires will power; it is aided by interest in the subject; 
slightly developed before the twelfth year. 

24. Teaching Value of Attention: It is absolutely es- 
sential to education; if the mind does not attend, there 
can be no learning. 

25. How to Get Attention: (1) Some mechanical aids 
are — have proper light, ventilation; shut out hinderences 
as far as possible ; request the superintendent to protect 
class against interruptions ; seat class so that all can see 
and hear. (2) Laws of attention: Attention cannot be in- 
definitely sustained; interest is the key to attention; pro- 
ceed from the known to the related unknown; put the 
old in a new setting or the new in an old setting. 



128 PUPIL LIFE 

26. Attention, and suggested methods: (1) In teach- 
ing children, appeal to eye and ear; they can give invol- 
untary attention. (2) In teaching youths, appeal to vol- 
untary attention ; expect real study ; give credits to those 
who learn; voluntary attention may become involuntary 
through interest. (3) In teaching adults, the teacher must 
discover a method of conducting the recitation so as to 
awaken interest and lead to real study. Combine quiz with 
lecture. 

2j. Apperception as Related to Interest and Memory: 
Old perceptions are like magnets attracting new percep- 
tions which are kin to them; we are interested in things 
about which we know something; memory is strengthened 
by judicious association of ideas, and apperception is but 
another name for judicious association. 

28. The Teaching Value of Apperception: It enables 
the pupil to add to his stock of knowledge by linking new 
truth to old. 

29. How to Utilize Apperception: The key word is 
"like," be able to say that "this truth is like this other truth 
with which you are familiar." Find in the pupils' experience 
a truth kin to the truth you wish to teach ; cause them to 
think of the truth already known; present the new truth 
step by step according to the pupils' ability to take it in; 
review it to see if they have it. 

30. Memory is tested by the power to bring back to 
mind the idea previously recorded and retained. People 
forget because the impression was not deeply recorded. 

31. Kinds of Memory: (1) Active and passive; the 
difference is the difference in attention; active memory 
means voluntary attention ; passive memory means invol- 
untary attention. (2) Verbal and logical; verbal is valua- 
ble in learning facts, names, etc. ; logical, is by mastery 
of the thought ; verbal, learns the names of the books of 
the Bible ; logical, learns the contents of the books. 

32. Teaching Value of Memory: (1) It furnishes our 
accumulation of knowledge ; (2) enables us to recall and 
use our knowledge ; (3) furnishes material for the im- 
agination to use. 



REVIEW AND TEST 129 

33. How Strengthen the Memory: (1) Deepen the first 
impression ; (2) association of ideas ; (3) drill. 

34. Memory, and suggested methods: (1) In teaching 
children, strengthen the memory by repetition, or drill and 
review ; (2) youths, strengthen memory by drill and asso- 
ciation of ideas ; (3) adult, appeal to logical memory, re- 
lating the truths to their lives. 

35. Imagination: The image building faculty; old ma- 
terial gathered through the process of memory is com- 
bined into new forms. 

36. Kinds of Imagination: (1) Fancy, which is char- 
acteristic of childhood and explains the child's love for 
the fairy story and wonderland; (2) imitative imagina- 
tion — children love to "play like" and usually imitate those 
whom they admire ; (3) toned-down imagination, develops 
in the period of youth 5 facts stir ; stories must deal with 
heroic deeds. (4) Creative imagination works by combin- 
ing results of former knowledge, is always constructive and 
works towards a plan. ^ 

37. Teaching value of Imagination: (1) Strengthens 
memory, makes truths real and living; especially helpful 
in teaching history and biography ; (2) awakens and deep- 
ens sympathy for those who need the gospel and Chris- 
tian comfort ; develops altruism ; (3) produces ideals and 
shapes character. 

38. How cultivate Imagination: (1) Teacher must cul- 
tivate imagination by studying the background of Bible 
history, weaving the facts into the lessons ; studying the 
art of story telling; (2) stimulate the pupil's imagination, 
ask pupil to tell the lesson story. 

39. Imagination and suggested methods: (1) In teach- 
ing children, use the story to stir the imagination and lead 
to imitation ; in the mirror story, the child will see its 
own career set forth; (2) in teaching youths, discard high- 
ly imaginative and unreal stories and use biographies, per- 
sonal experiences and nature stories ; (3) adults, stimulate 
them to see the background of Bible truths and the real 
purpose of the lives of Bible characters. 

(9) 



130 PUPIL LIFE 

40. Imagination: An elevating and joy-producing pow- 
er of the mind. Only by imagination or the "eye of the 
soul" can we know in any degree the glories of heaven or 
the horrors of hell, or appreciate many of the sublime de- 
scriptions of the Bible, especially the Revelation. When 
improperly fed and developed, imagination becomes pos- 
sibly the most degrading influence in life. 

41. Thought: The highest power of the mind. Gives 
man his superiority over lower animals and mastery over 
nature. In the realms of religion and morals, thought 
makes possible our choices and thus helps determine char- 
acter. Thought is the power of the mind by which it ob- 
serves, compares and classifies the material gathered by 
attention and perception. 

42. Forms of Thought: (1) Judgment, which is a dis- 
covery of relations between two ideas or concepts ; (2) 
reason, which involves a comparison of two judgments 
and results in a third judgment which completes the reason- 
ing process. 

43. Forms of Reasoning: Induction, deduction and 
analogy. 

44. Teaching value of Thought: (a) Makes possible 
progress in material things since new relations must be 
seen before new results can be had; (b) means progress 
in spiritual things, for each one should know the truth 
for himself and act for himself; liberty of conscience leads 
to soul liberty ; (c) helps clear up doubts since the doubter 
is but an inquirer after truth, and when truth is found the 
mind is satisfied; (d) makes possible right character- 
building, since choices are determined by thinking. 

45. How to cultivate the power of Thought: (a) In the 
younger years, store the memory with thought materials ; 
(b) connect truth with pupil's interests ; (c) use the ques- 
tion and answer method, and (d) lead pupils to make defi- 
nitions and analyses. 

46. The Feelings: A state of mind bringing us either 
pleasure or pain ; this applies to the results of bodily feel- 
ings, or sensation, as well as to mental feelings, or emo- 
tion. The feelings are closely related to knowing and will- 



REVIEW AND TEST 131 

ing; knowledge arouses the feelings, and the will is moved 
by the feelings. To know is to feel and to feel is to act. 

47. Kinds of Feelings: (1) The egoistic, or feelings 
about one's self, including desire for approval and various 
forms of self-esteem; these develop in childhood; (2) al- 
truistic, or feelings for others ; the golden rule and all kin- 
dred teachings are altruistic; these feelings develop in 
youth ; (3) moral feelings, or those we have through^ re- 
lation to our fellow men, and right living ; "love thy neigh- 
bor as thyself '; (4) spiritual feelings, or those we have 
as a result of our relations with God; the highest form is 
love. 

48. Teaching value of the Feelings: The feelings move 
the will to action. Without action, character forming is 
impossible ; the Sunday school teacher has much oppor- 
tunity to cultivate the feelings ; a pupil with the right 
feelings, or whose "heart is right," will rarely go wrong. 

49. How cultivate the Feelings: (1) The teacher must 
cultivate the kind of feelings he wishes the class to have 
towards the truths of the lesson and the whole Sunday 
school service ; create the right atmosphere in your class ; 
(2) use the story as a method of teaching and illustrating, 
for nothing so stirs the feelings as a well-told story; (3) 
use repression and stimulation as is needed; repress the 
impulsive and emotional pupil, stimulate the indifferent* 

50. The Feelings, and suggested methods: (1) Chil- 
dren's feelings are quickly aroused and quickly spent; stir 
their feelings by using higher and nobler illustrations, such 
as of generosity, love, honor to God; (2) feelings of youth 
are more under control of the will; pupils are developing 
ability to weigh evidence and make decisions ; stir their 
feelings by using facts, deeds of heroism, self-sacrifice, 
noble living; (3) feelings of adults are guarded by intellect 
and will; pathway to feelings must be besieged by facts 
and logical conclusions ; utilize their knowledge and ex- 
periences in illuminating truths, build on their knowledge, 
win by logical arguments and appeal to the will. 

51. Definition of Will: It is the determining and 
directing power of our minds involving all the conscious 



132 PUPIL LIFE 

forces of the mind ; it is like a king issuing imperial orders 
for his servants to carry out ; it involves three essentials — 
deliberation about the action involved, a decision to do it, 
and the execution of the decision; execution is the test; 
many good resolutions are never carried out. 

52. Kinds of Will: (1) The strong will; in the best 
sense it indicates the highest character and results from 
deliberation and wise decision ; (2) weak will indicates lack 
of decision, also lack of power of attention, hence little 
feeling. 

53. Teaching value of Will: Is in its relation to char- 
acter : "will determines habit and habit makes character," 
so will is back of both; "a cultivated will is but another 
name for strong character." Habits of honesty, diligence, 
study, punctuality, reverence, truthfulness and the like are 
largely matters of will. In the Sunday school, much empha- 
sis is put upon training pupils in these habits. 

54. How to develop the Will: (1) Have respect for it ; 
train it like we train memory and imagination ; do not 
break it; help pupils to control it; (2) recognize the neces- 
sity for freedom of the will; each pupil must make life's 
decisions for himself; (3) stir enthusiasm for the right 
and starve out the wrong. 

55. The Will, and suggested methods: (1) Wills of 
children act quickly from desire, hence teach positively 
about right and righteous living; illustrate with stories 
that will make them want to be like the best; (2) will of 
youths is moved by appeal to the feelings by means of 
knowledge, hence emphasize the importance of knowing; 
teach about great characters and their noble deeds ; (3) 
will of adults is moved through appeal to the intellect 
through facts logically presented and illustrated out of 
practical life, so as to stir the feelings. 

56. Habit defined: Is a fixed tendency to think, feel, 
or act in a peculiar way under special circumstances ; it 
becomes second nature ; a large factor in it is repetition. 

57. Some essentials in Habit forming : (1) Information, 
as good habits result from a knowledge of the ends 



REVIEW AND TEST 133 

gained, or issues involved; (2) self-activity, as habits re- 
sult from repetition of individual acts ; (3) perseverance, 
as it is essential to "keep it up" until the habit is formed ; 
(4) cooperation, as much depends upon environment and 
companionship. 

58. Teaching value of Habit: Is in its relation to char- 
acter, habit is the material out of which character is made. 
Man is a bundle of habits. "Habits are the dress of the 
spirit." Some practical values of habit: (a) Economizes 
time and effort, enabling us to do things automatically; 
makes us expert in conduct; (b) aids us in accumulating 
knowledge, as the powers of the mind form habits of 
study; we can get the habit of paying attention, of mem- 
orizing, etc. 

59. How cultivate Habits: In childhood we form the 
habits commonly called "manners"; in youth, the habits 
which belong to personal character; in adult years, those 
which belong to professional life. Some rules: (1) Lead 
out with a strong initiative, plunge in, sign the pledge, 
make promises ; (2) never suffer an exception to occur ; 
(3) carry out every good resolution immediately; don't 
simply resolve, but actually do. 

60. Character means literally an "engraving tool"; 
shifted by usage to mean marks upon one's self by his 
own acts ; choices of the will tend to fix themselves into 
habits and they "stamp" themselves upon the individual; 
highest character is Christian character in which the acts 
proceed from a regenerated spirit ; comes as a result of 
religious beliefs working themselves out in religious acts. 



134 PUPIL LIFE 



General Questions for Review and Examination 

The teacher will conduct the examination upon this 
book in accordance with instructions given on page three, 
"Directions for the study of this book." 

I. Define psychology. 

2. Illustrate the three capacities which constitute the mind. 

3. Why study psychology? 

4. How learn psychology? 

5. Define sensation and name the kinds. 

6. What is consciousness? 

7. State the kind of curiosity possessed by youths and by 
adults. 

8. Give several ways of awakening curiosity. 

9. Name and describe the kinds of attention. 

10. Suggest some practical ways of getting attention. 

II. What is the relation of interest to attention? 

12. What is meant by the apperceptive mass? Illustrate. 

13. Show the relation of apperception to attention and to in- 
terest. 

14. Illustrate the process of making new truths clear. 

15. In utilizing the process of apperception, what steps must 
be taken? 

16. Name and define the kinds of memory. 

17. Give three suggestions for strengthening the memory. 

18. State the general principle for memory work in childhood 
and in youth. 

19. Name and describe the kinds of imagination. 

20. How best utilize imagination in teaching children, youths 
and adults? 

21. Define thought. 

22. Name and illustrate the forms of thought. 

23. Name and illustrate the forms of reasoning. 

24. Indicate the teaching value of thought. 

25. Suggest three ways of cultivating the power of thought. 

26. Name and describe the kinds of feelings. 

27. Show how the feelings are "fountains of conduct.'' 



REVIEW AND TEST 135 

28. Suggest three ways of cultivating the feelings. 

29. Name and describe three things involved in an act of will. 

30. Name and describe the kinds of will. 

31. What is the teaching value of the will? 

32. Give three suggestions for developing the will. 

33. Describe the physical aspects of the law of habit. 

34. What habits are best formed in childhood? What before 
the pupil's conversion? 

35 How may adults be led to cultivate good habits? 

36. How may bad habits best be broken? 

37. Define character. How is character formed? 



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